Communication Acoustics: An Introduction to Speech, Audio and Psychoacoustics (Hardcover)

· 제목 : Communication Acoustics: An Introduction to Speech, Audio and Psychoacoustics (Hardcover) 
· 분류 : 외국도서 > 기술공학 > 기술공학 > 신호/신호처리
· ISBN : 9781118866542
· 쪽수 : 456쪽

About the Authors xix

Preface xxi

Preface to the Unfinished Manuscript of the Book xxiii

Introduction 1

1 How to Study and Develop Communication Acoustics 7

1.1 Domains of Knowledge 7

1.2 Methodology of Research and Development 8

1.3 Systems Approach to Modelling 10

1.4 About the Rest of this Book 12

1.5 Focus of the Book 12

1.6 Intended Audience 13

References 14

2 Physics of Sound 15

2.1 Vibration and Wave Behaviour of Sound 15

2.1.1 From Vibration to Waves 16

2.1.2 A Simple Vibrating System 16

2.1.3 Resonance 18

2.1.4 Complex Mass–Spring Systems 19

2.1.5 Modal Behaviour 20

2.1.6 Waves 21

2.2 Acoustic Measures and Quantities 23

2.2.1 Sound and Voice as Signals 23

2.2.2 Sound Pressure 24

2.2.3 Sound Pressure Level 24

2.2.4 Sound Power 25

2.2.5 Sound Intensity 25

2.2.6 Computation with Amplitude and Level Quantities 25

2.3 Wave Phenomena 26

2.3.1 Spherical Waves 26

2.3.2 Plane Waves and the Wave Field in a Tube 27

2.3.3 Wave Propagation in Solid Materials 29

2.3.4 Reflection, Absorption, and Refraction 31

2.3.5 Scattering and Diffraction 32

2.3.6 Doppler Effect 33

2.4 Sound in Closed Spaces: Acoustics of Rooms and Halls 34

2.4.1 Sound Field in a Room 34

2.4.2 Reverberation 36

2.4.3 Sound Pressure Level in a Room 37

2.4.4 Modal Behaviour of Sound in a Room 38

2.4.5 Computational Modelling of Closed Space Acoustics 39

Summary 41

Further Reading 41

References 41

3 Signal Processing and Signals 43

3.1 Signals 43

3.1.1 Sounds as Signals 43

3.1.2 Typical Signals 45

3.2 Fundamental Concepts of Signal Processing 46

3.2.1 Linear and Time-Invariant Systems 46

3.2.2 Convolution 47

3.2.3 Signal Transforms 48

3.2.4 Fourier Analysis and Synthesis 49

3.2.5 Spectrum Analysis 50

3.2.6 Time–Frequency Representations 53

3.2.7 Filter Banks 54

3.2.8 Auto- and Cross-Correlation 55

3.2.9 Cepstrum 56

3.3 Digital Signal Processing (DSP) 56

3.3.1 Sampling and Signal Conversion 56

3.3.2 Z Transform 57

3.3.3 Filters as LTI Systems 58

3.3.4 Digital Filtering 58

3.3.5 Linear Prediction 59

3.3.6 Adaptive Filtering 62

3.4 Hidden Markov Models 62

3.5 Concepts of Intelligent and Learning Systems 63

Summary 64

Further Reading 64

References 64

4 Electroacoustics and Responses of Audio Systems 67

4.1 Electroacoustics 67

4.1.1 Loudspeakers 67

4.1.2 Microphones 70

4.2 Audio System Responses 71

4.2.1 Measurement of System Response 71

4.2.2 Ideal Reproduction of Sound 72

4.2.3 Impulse Response and Magnitude Response 72

4.2.4 Phase Response 74

4.2.5 Non-Linear Distortion 75

4.2.6 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 76

4.3 Response Equalization 76

Summary 77

Further Reading 78

References 78

5 Human Voice 79

5.1 Speech Production 79

5.1.1 Speech Production Mechanism 80

5.1.2 Vocal Folds and Phonation 80

5.1.3 Vocal and Nasal Tract and Articulation 82

5.1.4 Lip Radiation Measurements 84

5.2 Units and Notation of Speech used in Phonetics 84

5.2.1 Vowels 86

5.2.2 Consonants 86

5.2.3 Prosody and Suprasegmental Features 88

5.3 Modelling of Speech Production 90

5.3.1 Glottal Modelling 92

5.3.2 Vocal Tract Modelling 92

5.3.3 Articulatory Synthesis 94

5.3.4 Formant Synthesis 95

5.4 Singing Voice 96

Summary 96

Further Reading 97

References 97

6 Musical Instruments and Sound Synthesis 99

6.1 Acoustic Instruments 99

6.1.1 Types of Musical Instruments 99

6.1.2 Resonators in Instruments 100

6.1.3 Sources of Excitation 102

6.1.4 Controlling the Frequency of Vibration 103

6.1.5 Combining the Excitation and Resonant Structures 104

6.2 Sound Synthesis in Music 104

6.2.1 Envelope of Sounds 105

6.2.2 Synthesis Methods 106

6.2.3 Synthesis of Plucked String Instruments with a One-Dimensional Physical Model 107

Summary 108

Further Reading 108

References 108

7 Physiology and Anatomy of Hearing 111

7.1 Global Structure of the Ear 111

7.2 External Ear 112

7.3 Middle Ear 113

7.4 Inner Ear 115

7.4.1 Structure of the Cochlea 115

7.4.2 Passive Cochlear Processing 117

7.4.3 Active Function of the Cochlea 119

7.4.4 The Inner Hair Cells 122

7.4.5 Cochlear Non-Linearities 122

7.5 Otoacoustic Emissions 123

7.6 Auditory Nerve 123

7.6.1 Information Transmission using the Firing Rate 124

7.6.2 Phase Locking 126

7.7 Auditory Nervous System 127

7.7.1 Structure of the Auditory Pathway 127

7.7.2 Studying Brain Function 129

7.8 Motivation for Building Computational Models of Hearing 130

Summary 131

Further Reading 131

References 131

8 The Approach and Methodology of Psychoacoustics 133

8.1 Sound Events versus Auditory Events 133

8.2 Psychophysical Functions 135

8.3 Generation of Sound Events 135

8.3.1 Synthesis of Sound Signals 136

8.3.2 Listening Set-up and Conditions 137

8.3.3 Steering Attention to Certain Details of An Auditory Event 137

8.4 Selection of Subjects for Listening Tests 138

8.5 What are We Measuring? 138

8.5.1 Thresholds 138

8.5.2 Scales and Categorization of Percepts 140

8.5.3 Numbering Scales in Listening Tests 141

8.6 Tasks for Subjects 141

8.7 Basic Psychoacoustic Test Methods 142

8.7.1 Method of Constant Stimuli 143

8.7.2 Method of Limits 143

8.7.3 Method of Adjustment 143

8.7.4 Method of Tracking 144

8.7.5 Direct Scaling Methods 144

8.7.6 Adaptive Staircase Methods 144

8.8 Descriptive Sensory Analysis 145

8.8.1 Verbal Elicitation 147

8.8.2 Non-Verbal Elicitation 148

8.8.3 Indirect Elicitation 148

8.9 Psychoacoustic Tests from the Point of View of Statistics 149

Summary 149

Further Reading 150

References 150

9 Basic Function of Hearing 153

9.1 Effective Hearing Area 153

9.1.1 Equal Loudness Curves 155

9.1.2 Sound Level and its Measurement 156

9.2 Spectral Masking 156

9.2.1 Masking by Noise 157

9.2.2 Masking by Pure Tones 159

9.2.3 Masking by Complex Tones 159

9.2.4 Other Masking Phenomena 161

9.3 Temporal Masking 161

9.4 Frequency Selectivity of Hearing 163

9.4.1 Psychoacoustic Tuning Curves 164

9.4.2 ERB Bandwidths 166

9.4.3 Bark, ERB, and Greenwood Scales 167

Summary 169

Further Reading 169

References 169

10 Basic Psychoacoustic Quantities 171

10.1 Pitch 171

10.1.1 Pitch Strength and Frequency Range 171

10.1.2 JND of Pitch 172

10.1.3 Pitch Perception versus Duration of Sound 173

10.1.4 Mel Scale 174

10.1.5 Logarithmic Pitch Scale and Musical Scale 175

10.1.6 Detection Threshold of Pitch Change and Frequency Modulation 176

10.1.7 Pitch of Coloured Noise 176

10.1.8 Repetition Pitch 177

10.1.9 Virtual Pitch 178

10.1.10 Pitch of Non-Harmonic Complex Sounds 178

10.1.11 Pitch Theories 178

10.1.12 Absolute Pitch 179

10.2 Loudness 179

10.2.1 Loudness Determination Experiments 179

10.2.2 Loudness Level 180

10.2.3 Loudness of a Pure Tone 180

10.2.4 Loudness of Broadband Signals 182

10.2.5 Excitation Pattern, Specific Loudness, and Loudness 183

10.2.6 Difference Threshold of Loudness 185

10.2.7 Loudness versus Duration of Sound 187

10.3 Timbre 188

10.3.1 Timbre of Steady-State Sounds 189

10.3.2 Timbre of Sound Including Modulations 189

10.4 Subjective Duration of Sound 189

Summary 191

Further Reading 191

References 191

11 Further Analysis in Hearing 193

11.1 Sharpness 193

11.2 Detection of Modulation and Sound Onset 195

11.2.1 Fluctuation Strength 195

11.2.2 Impulsiveness 197

11.3 Roughness 198

11.4 Tonality 200

11.5 Discrimination of Changes in Signal Magnitude and Phase Spectra 201

11.5.1 Adaptation to the Magnitude Spectrum 201

11.5.2 Perception of Phase and Time Differences 202

11.6 Psychoacoustic Concepts and Music 206

11.6.1 Sensory Consonance and Dissonance 206

11.6.2 Intervals, Scales, and Tuning in Music 208

11.6.3 Rhythm, Tempo, Bar, and Measure 211

11.7 Perceptual Organization of Sound 212

11.7.1 Segregation of Sound Sources 213

11.7.2 Sound Streaming and Auditory Scene Analysis 214

Summary 216

Further Reading 217

References 217

12 Spatial Hearing 219

12.1 Concepts and Definitions for Spatial Hearing 219

12.1.1 Basic Concepts 219

12.1.2 Coordinate Systems for Spatial Hearing 221

12.2 Head-Related Acoustics 222

12.3 Localization Cues 226

12.3.1 Interaural Time Difference 227

12.3.2 Interaural Level Difference 228

12.3.3 Interaural Coherence 231

12.3.4 Cues to Resolve the Direction on the Cone of Confusion 232

12.3.5 Interaction Between Spatial Hearing and Vision 234

12.4 Localization Accuracy 235

12.4.1 Localization in the Horizontal Plane 235

12.4.2 Localization in the Median Plane 236

12.4.3 3D Localization 237

12.4.4 Perception of the Distribution of a Spatially Extended Source 238

12.5 Directional Hearing in Enclosed Spaces 239

12.5.1 Precedence Effect 239

12.5.2 Adaptation to the Room Effect in Localization 240

12.6 Binaural Advantages in Timbre Perception 241

12.6.1 Binaural Detection and Unmasking 241

12.6.2 Binaural Decolouration 243

12.7 Perception of Source Distance 243

12.7.1 Cues for Distance Perception 244

12.7.2 Accuracy of Distance Perception 245

Summary 246

Further Reading 246

References 246

13 Auditory Modelling 249

13.1 Simple Psychoacoustic Modelling with DFT 250

13.1.1 Computation of the Auditory Spectrum through DFT 250

13.2 Filter Bank Models 255

13.2.1 Modelling the Outer and Middle Ear 255

13.2.2 Gammatone Filter Bank and Auditory Nerve Responses 256

13.2.3 Level-Dependent Filter Banks 256

13.2.4 Envelope Detection and Temporal Dynamics 258

13.3 Cochlear Models 260

13.3.1 Basilar Membrane Models 260

13.3.2 Hair-Cell Models 261

13.4 Modelling of Higher-Level Systemic Properties 263

13.4.1 Analysis of Pitch and Periodicity 263

13.4.2 Modelling of Loudness Perception 265

13.5 Models of Spatial Hearing 265

13.5.1 Delay-Network-Based Models of Binaural Hearing 265

13.5.2 Equalization Cancellation and ILD Models 268

13.5.3 Count-Comparison Models 268

13.5.4 Models of Localization in the Median Plane 270

13.6 Matlab Examples 270

13.6.1 Filter-Bank Model with Autocorrelation-Based Pitch Analysis 270

13.6.2 Binaural Filter-Bank Model with Cross-Correlation-Based ITD

Analysis 272

Summary 274

Further Reading 274

References 274

14 Sound Reproduction 277

14.1 Need for Sound Reproduction 277

14.2 Audio Content Production 279

14.3 Listening Set-ups 280

14.3.1 Loudspeaker Set-ups 280

14.3.2 Listening Room Acoustics 282

14.3.3 Audiovisual Systems 283

14.3.4 Auditory-Tactile Systems 284

14.4 Recording Techniques 284

14.4.1 Monophonic Techniques 285

14.4.2 Spot Microphone Technique 285

14.4.3 Coincident Microphone Techniques for Two-Channel Stereophony 286

14.4.4 Spaced Microphone Techniques for Two-Channel Stereophony 286

14.4.5 Spaced Microphone Techniques for Multi-Channel Loudspeaker Systems 287

14.4.6 Coincident Recording for Multi-Channel Set-up with Ambisonics 287

14.4.7 Non-Linear Time–Frequency-domain Reproduction of Spatial Sound 290

14.5 Virtual Source Positioning 293

14.5.1 Amplitude Panning 293

14.5.2 Amplitude Panning in a Stereophonic Set-up 294

14.5.3 Amplitude Panning in Horizontal Multi-Channel Loudspeaker Set-ups 295

14.5.4 3D Amplitude Panning 295

14.5.5 Virtual Source Positioning using Ambisonics 296

14.5.6 Wave Field Synthesis 296

14.5.7 Time Delay Panning 297

14.5.8 Synthesizing the Width of Virtual Sources 298

14.6 Binaural Techniques 298

14.6.1 Listening to Binaural Recordings with Headphones 299

14.6.2 HRTF Processing for Headphone Listening 299

14.6.3 Virtual Listening of Loudspeakers with Headphones 300

14.6.4 Headphone Listening to Two-Channel Stereophonic Content 301

14.6.5 Binaural Techniques with Cross-Talk-Cancelled Loudspeakers 301

14.7 Digital Audio Effects 302

14.8 Reverberators 303

14.8.1 Using Room Impulse Responses in Reverberators 304

14.8.2 DSP Structures for Reverberators 305

Summary 306

Further Reading and Available Toolboxes 306

References 307

15 Time–Frequency-domain Processing and Coding of Audio 311

15.1 Basic Techniques and Concepts for Time–Frequency Processing 311

15.1.1 Frame-Based Processing 311

15.1.2 Downsampled Filter-Bank Processing 313

15.1.3 Modulation with Tone Sequences 315

15.1.4 Aliasing 316

15.2 Time–Frequency Transforms 317

15.2.1 Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT) 318

15.2.2 Alias-Free STFT 320

15.2.3 Modified Discrete Cosine Transform (MDCT) 321

15.2.4 Pseudo-Quadrature Mirror Filter (PQMF) Bank 323

15.2.5 Complex QMF 323

15.2.6 Sub-Sub-Band Filtering of the Complex QMF Bands 325

15.2.7 Stochastic Measures of Time–Frequency Signals 325

15.2.8 Decorrelation 327

15.3 Time–Frequency-Domain Audio-Processing Techniques 328

15.3.1 Masking-Based Audio Coding 328

15.3.2 Audio Coding with Spectral Band Replication 328

15.3.3 Parametric Stereo, MPEG Surround, and Spatial Audio Object Coding 329

15.3.4 Stereo Upmixing and Enhancement for Loudspeakers and Headphones 330

Summary 332

Further Reading 332

References 332

16 Speech Technologies 335

16.1 Speech Coding 336

16.2 Text-to-Speech Synthesis 338

16.2.1 Early Knowledge-Based Text-to-Speech (TTS) Synthesis 339

16.2.2 Unit-Selection Synthesis 340

16.2.3 Statistical Parametric Synthesis 342

16.3 Speech Recognition 345

Summary 346

Further Reading 347

References 347

17 Sound Quality 349

17.1 Historical Background of Sound Quality 350

17.2 The Many Facets of Sound Quality 351

17.3 Systemic Framework for Sound Quality 352

17.4 Subjective Sound Quality Measurement 353

17.4.1 Mean Opinion Score 353

17.4.2 MUSHRA 354

17.5 Audio Quality 356

17.5.1 Monaural Quality 356

17.5.2 Perceptual Measures and Models for Monaural Audio Quality 356

17.5.3 Spatial Audio Quality 359

17.6 Quality of Speech Communication 360

17.6.1 Subjective Methods and Measures 361

17.6.2 Objective Methods and Measures 362

17.7 Measuring Speech Understandability with the Modulation Transfer Function 363

17.7.1 Modulation Transfer Function 363

17.7.2 Speech Transmission Index STI 367

17.7.3 STI and Speech Intelligibility 368

17.7.4 Practical Measurement of STI 369

17.8 Objective Speech Quality Measurement for Telecommunication 370

17.8.1 General Speech Quality Measurement Techniques 371

17.8.2 Measurement of the Perceptual Effect of Background Noise 372

17.8.3 Measurement of the Perceptual Effect of Echoes 373

17.9 Sound Quality in Auditoria and Concert Halls 374

17.9.1 Subjective Measures 374

17.9.2 Objective Measures 375

17.9.3 Percentage of Consonant Loss 377

17.10 Noise Quality 377

17.11 Product Sound Quality 378

Summary 380

Further Reading 380

References 380

18 Other Audio Applications 383

18.1 Virtual Reality and Game Audio Engines 383

18.2 Sonic Interaction Design 386

18.3 Computational Auditory Scene Analysis, CASA 387

18.4 Music Information Retrieval 387

18.5 Miscellaneous Applications 389

Summary 390

Further Reading 390

References 390

19 Technical Audiology 393

19.1 Hearing Impairments and Disabilities 393

19.1.1 Key Terminology 394

19.1.2 Classification of Hearing Impairments 395

19.1.3 Causes for Hearing Impairments 396

19.2 Symptoms and Consequences of Hearing Impairments 396

19.2.1 Hearing Threshold Shift 397

19.2.2 Distortion and Decrease in Discrimination 398

19.2.3 Speech Communication Problems 400

19.2.4 Tinnitus 400

19.3 The Effect of Noise on Hearing 401

19.3.1 Noise 401

19.3.2 Formation of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 402

19.3.3 Temporary Threshold Shift 402

19.3.4 Hearing Protection 404

19.4 Audiometry 405

19.4.1 Pure-Tone Audiometry 405

19.4.2 Bone-Conduction Audiometry 406

19.4.3 Speech Audiometry 406

19.4.4 Sound-Field Audiometry 407

19.4.5 Tympanometry 407

19.4.6 Otoacoustic Emissions 408

19.4.7 Neural Responses 409

19.5 Hearing Aids 409

19.5.1 Types of Hearing Aids 409

19.5.2 Signal Processing in Hearing Aids 410

19.5.3 Transmission Systems and Assistive Listening Devices 414

19.6 Implantable Hearing Solutions 414

19.6.1 Cochlear Implants 414

19.6.2 Electric-Acoustic Stimulation 416

19.6.3 Bone-Anchored Hearing Aids 416

19.6.4 Middle-Ear Implants 416

Summary 416

Further Reading 417

References 417

Index 419