High Voltage Direct Current Transmission: Converters, Systems and DC Grids (Hardcover, 2)

· 제목 : High Voltage Direct Current Transmission: Converters, Systems and DC Grids (Hardcover, 2) 
· 분류 : 외국도서 > 과학/수학/생태 > 과학 > 에너지
· ISBN : 9781119566540
· 쪽수 : 560쪽

Part I HVDC with Current Source Converters 10

1 Introduction to Line Commutated HVDC 11

1.1 HVDC Applications 11

1.2 Line Commutated HVDC Components 12

1.3 DC Cables and Overhead Lines 13

1.4 LCC HVDC Topologies 14

1.5 Losses in LCC HVDC Systems 15

1.6 Conversion of AC Lines to DC 16

1.7 Ultra High Voltage HVDC 17

2 Thyristors 18

2.1 Operating Characteristics 18

2.2 Switching Characteristic 19

2.3 Losses in an HVDC Thyristors 21

2.4 Valve Structure and Thyristor Snubbers 24

2.5 Thyristor Rating Selection and Overload Capability 26

3 6-Pulse Diode and Thyristor Converter 27

3.1 3-Phase Uncontrolled Bridge 27

3.2 3-Phase Thyristor Rectifier 29

3.3 Analysis of Commutation Overlap in a Thyristor Converter 30

3.4 Active and Reactive Power in a 3-Phase Thyristor Converter 33

3.5 Inverter Operation 34

4 HVDC Rectifier Station Modelling, Control and Synchronisation with AC System 37

4.1 HVDC Rectifier Controller 37

4.2 Phase Locked Loop (PLL) 38

4.3 Master Level HVDC Control 40

5 HVDC Inverter Station Modelling and Control 41

5.1 Inverter Controller 41

5.2 Commutation Failure 42

6 HVDC System V-I Diagrams and Operating Modes 45

6.1 HVDC Equivalent Circuit 45

6.2 HVDC V-I Operating Diagram 45

6.3 HVDC Power Reversal 47

7 HVDC Analytical Modelling and Stability 52

7.1 Introduction to Converter and HVDC Modelling 52

7.2 HVDC Analytical Model 53

7.3 CIGRE HVDC Benchmark Model 53

7.4 Converter Modelling, Linearisation and Gain Scheduling 54

7.5 AC System Modelling For HVDC Stability Studies 55

7.6 LCC Converter Transformer Model 57

7.7 DC System Including DC Cable 58

7.8 Accurate DC Cable Modelling 60

7.9 HVDC-HVAC System Model 66

7.10 Analytical Dynamic Model Verification 66

7.11 Basic HVDC Dynamic Analysis 67

7.12 HVDC Second Harmonic Instability 68

7.13 100Hz Oscillations on DC Side 70

8 HVDC Phasor Modelling and Interactions with AC System 71

8.1 Converter and DC System Phasor Model 71

8.2 Phasor AC System Model and Interaction with DC System 71

8.3 Inverter AC Voltage and Power Profile As DC Current Is Increasing 73

8.4 Influence of Converter Extinction Angle 74

8.5 Influence of Shunt Reactive Power Compensation 74

8.6 Influence of Load At the Converter Terminals 75

8.7 Influence of Operating Mode (DC Voltage Control Mode) 75

8.8 Rectifier Operating Mode 77

9 HVDC Operation with Weak AC Systems 79

9.1 Introduction 79

9.2 Short Circuit Ratio and Equivalent Short Circuit Ratio 79

9.3 Background on Power Transfer Between Two AC Systems 82

9.4 Phasor Study of Converter Interactions with Weak AC Systems 83

9.5 System Dynamics (Small Signal Stability) with Low SCR 84

9.6 Control and Main Circuit Solutions for Weak AC Grids 85

9.7 LCC HVDC with SVC (Static Var Compensator) 85

9.8 Capacitor Commutated Converters for HVDC 88

9.9 AC System with Low Inertia 89

10 Fault Management and HVDC System Protection 91

10.1 Introduction 91

10.2 DC Line Faults 91

10.3 AC System Faults 93

10.4 Internal Faults 95

10.5 System Reconfiguration for Permanent Faults 96

10.6 Overvoltage Protection 97

11 LCC HVDC System Harmonics 99

11.1 Harmonic Performance Criteria 99

11.2 Harmonic Limits 99

11.3 Thyristor Converter Harmonics 100

11.4 Harmonic Filters 101

11.5 Non-Characteristic Harmonic Reduction Using HVDC Controls 108

Bibliography Part I Line Commutated Converter HVDC 109

Part II HVDC with Voltage Source Converters 111

12 VSC HVDC Applications and Topologies, Performance and Cost Comparison with LCC HVDC 112

12.1 Application of Voltage Source Converters (VSC) in HVDC 112

12.2 Comparison with Line Commutated Converter (LCC) HVDC 113

12.3 HVDC Technology Landscape 114

12.4 Overhead and Subsea/Underground VSC HVDC Transmission 116

12.5 DC Cable Types with VSC HVDC 116

12.6 Monopolar and Bipolar VSC HVDC Systems 117

12.7 VSC HVDC Converter Topologies 117

12.8 VSC HVDC Station Components 122

12.9 AC Inductors 127

12.10 DC Inductors 127

13 IGBT Switches and VSC Converter Losses 129

13.1 Introduction to IGBT and IGCT 129

13.2 General VSC Converter Switch Requirements 129

13.3 IGBT Technology 129

13.4 High Power IGBT Devices 134

13.5 IEGT Technology 134

13.6 Losses Calculation 135

13.7 Balancing Challenges in 2-Level IGBT Valves 139

13.8 Snubbers Circuits 139

14 Single Phase and 3-Phase 2-Level VSC Converters 141

14.1 Introduction 141

14.2 Single Phase Voltage Source Converter 141

14.3 Three Phase Voltage Source Converter 143

14.4 Square Wave, Six Pulse Operation 143

15 2-Level PWM VSC Converters 150

15.1 Introduction 150

15.2 PWM Modulation 150

15.3 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) 151

15.4 Third Harmonic Injection (THI) 153

15.5 Selective Harmonic Elimination Modulation (SHE) 154

15.6 Converter Losses for Two-Level SPWM VSC 154

15.7 Harmonics with Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) 156

15.8 Comparison of PWM Modulation Techniques 158

16 Multilevel VSC Converters in HVDC Applications 160

16.1 Introduction 160

16.2 Modulation Techniques for Multilevel Converters 161

16.3 Neutral Point Clamped Multilevel Converter 162

16.4 Half Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter (HB MMC) 163

16.5 Full Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter (FB MMC) 173

16.6 Comparison of Multilevel Topologies 176

17 2-Level VSC HVDC Modelling, Control and Dynamics 177

17.1 PWM 2-Level Converter Average Model 177

17.2 2-Level PWM Converter Model in DQ Frame 179

17.3 VSC Converter Transformer Model 180

17.4 2-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in ABC Frame 180

17.5 2-Level VSC Converter and AC Grid Model in DQ Rotating Coordinate Frame 181

17.6 VSC Converter Control Principles 182

17.7 The Inner Current Controller Design 182

17.8 Outer Controller Design 185

17.9 Complete 2-Level VSC Converter Controller 188

17.10 Small Signal Linearised VSC HVDC Model 188

17.11 Small Signal Dynamic Studies 191

18 2-Level VSC HVDC Phasor-Domain Interaction with AC Systems and PQ Operating Diagrams 193

18.1 Power Exchange Between Two AC Voltage Sources 193

18.2 Converter Phasor Model and Power Exchange with AC System 195

18.3 Phasor Study of VSC Converter Interaction with AC System 197

18.4 Operating Limits 199

18.5 Design Point Selection 200

18.6 Influence of AC System Strength 201

18.7 Influence of AC System Impedance Angle (Xs/Rs) 201

18.8 Influence of Transformer Reactance 202

18.9 Influence of Converter Control Modes 202

18.10 Operation with Very Weak AC Systems 203

19 Half Bridge MMC: Dimensioning, Modelling, Control and Interaction with AC System 210

19.1 Basic Equations and Steady-State Control 210

19.2 Steady-State Dimensioning 214

19.3 Half Bridge MMC Non-Linear Average Dynamic Model 215

19.4 Nonlinear Average Value Model Including Blocked State 217

19.5 HB MMC HVDC Start-Up and Charging MMC Cells 218

19.6 HB MMC Dynamic DQ Frame Model and Phasor Model 219

19.7 Second Harmonic of Differential Current 224

19.8 Complete MMC Converter DQ Model in Matrix Form 225

19.9 Second Harmonic Circulating Current Suppression Controller 226

19.10 Simplified DQ Frame Model with Circulating Current Controller 229

19.11 Phasor Model of MMC with Circulating Current Suppression Controller 232

19.12 Simplified Dynamic MMC Model Using Equivalent Series Capacitor CMMC 233

19.13 Full Dynamic Analytical HB MMC Model 235

19.14 HB MMC Controller and Arm Voltage Control 237

19.15 MMC Total Series Reactance and Comparison with 2-Level VSC 238

19.16 MMC Interaction with AC System and PQ Operating Diagrams 240

20 Full Bridge MMC Converter: Dimensioning, Modelling and Control 242

20.1 FB MMC Arm Voltage Range 242

20.2 Full Bridge MMC Converter Non-Linear Average Model 242

20.3 FB MMC Nonlinear Average Model Including Blocked State 243

20.4 Full Bridge MMC Cell Charging 244

20.5 Hybrid MMC Design 245

20.6 Full-Bridge MMC DC Voltage Variation Using a Detailed Model 250

20.7 FB MMC Analytical Dynamic DQ Model 251

20.8 Simplified FB MMC Model 253

20.9 FB MMC Converter Controller 253

21 MMC Converter Under Unbalanced Conditions 256

21.1 Introduction 256

21.2 MMC Balancing Controller Structure 256

21.3 Balancing Between Phases (Horizontal Balancing) 257

21.4 Balancing Between Arms (Vertical Balancing) 258

21.5 Simulation of Balancing Controls 259

21.6 Operation with Unbalanced AC Grid 263

22 VSC HVDC Under AC and DC Fault Conditions 266

22.1 Introduction 266

22.2 Faults on the AC System 266

22.3 DC Faults with 2-Level VSC 267

22.4 Influence of DC Capacitors 270

22.5 VSC Converter Modelling Under DC Faults and VSC Diode Bridge 271

22.6 VSC Converter Mode Transitions As DC Voltage Reduces 277

22.7 DC Faults with Half-Bridge Modular Multilevel Converter 278

22.8 Full Bridge MMC Under DC Faults 280

23 VSC HVDC Application for AC Grid Support and Operation with Passive AC Systems 284

23.1 VSC HVDC High Level Controls and AC Grid Support 284

23.2 HVDC Embedded Inside an AC Grid 285

23.3 HVDC Connecting Two Separate AC Grid 285

23.4 HVDC in Parallel with AC 286

23.5 Operation with a Passive AC System and Black Start Capability 286

23.6 VSC HVDC Operation with Offshore Wind Farms 287

23.7 VSC HVDC Supplying Power Offshore and Driving a MW Size Variable Speed Motor 288

Bibliography Part II Voltage Source Converter HVDC 290

Part III DC Transmission Grids 292

24 Introduction to DC Grids 293

24.1 DC Versus AC Transmission 293

24.2 Terminology 293

24.3 DC Grid Planning, Topology and Power Transfer Security 294

24.4 Technical Challenges 294

24.5 DC Grid Building By Multiple Manufacturers –Interoperability 295

24.6 Economic Aspects 295

25 DC Grids with Line Commutated Converters 297

25.1 Multiterminal LCC HVDC 297

25.2 Italy-Corsica-Sardinia Multiterminal HVDC Link 298

25.3 Connecting LCC Converter to a DC Grid 298

25.4 Control of LCC Converters in DC Grids 300

25.5 Control of LCC DC Grids Through DC Voltage Droop Feedback 301

25.6 Managing LCC DC Grid Faults 302

25.7 Reactive Power Issues 303

25.8 Employing LCC Converter Stations in Established DC Grids 303

26 DC Grids with Voltage Source Converters and Power Flow Model 304

26.1 Connecting VSC Converter to a DC Grid 304

26.2 Operating Multiterminal VSC HVDC in China 304

26.3 DC Grid Power Flow Model 306

26.4 DC Grid Power Flow Under DC Faults 308

27 DC Grid Control 311

27.1 Introduction 311

27.2 Fast Local VSC Converter Control in DC Grids 311

27.3 DC Grid Dispatcher with Remote Communication 313

27.4 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary DC Grid Control 313

27.5 DC Voltage Droop Control for VSC Converters in DC Grids 314

27.6 3-Level Control for VSC Converters with Dispatcher Droop 315

27.7 Power Flow Algorithm When DC Powers Are Regulated 316

27.8 Power Flow and Control Study of CIGRE DC Grid Test System 320

28 DC Circuit Breakers 325

28.1 Introduction 325

28.2 Challenges with DC Circuit Opening 325

28.3 DC CB Operating Principles and a Simple Model 326

28.4 DC CB Performance Requirements 327

28.5 Practical HV DC CBs 328

28.6 Mechanical DC Circuit Breaker 329

28.7 Semiconductor Based DC Circuit Breaker 337

28.8 Hybrid DC Circuit Breaker 339

29 DC Grid Fault Management and Protection System 345

29.1 Introduction 345

29.2 Fault Current Components in DC Grids 346

29.3 DC System Protection Coordination with AC System Protection 347

29.4 DC Grid Protection System Development 348

29.5 DC Grid Protection System Based On Local Measurements 349

29.6 Blocking MMC Converters Under DC Faults 352

29.7 Differential DC Grid Protection Strategy 355

29.8 Selective Protection for Star-Topology DC Grids 356

29.9 DC Grids with DC Fault-Tolerant VSC Converters 357

29.10 DC Grids with Full Bridge MMC Converters 361

30 High Power DC/DC Converters and DC Power Flow Controlling Devices 364

30.1 Introduction 364

30.2 Power Flow Control Using Series Resistors 365

30.3 Low Stepping Ratio DC/DC Converters (DC Choppers) 367

30.4 Non-Isolated MMC-Based DC/DC Converter (M2DC) 370

30.5 DC/DC Converters with DC Polarity Reversal 378

30.6 High Stepping Ratio Isolated DC/DC Converter (Dual Active Bridge DC/DC) 379

30.7 High Stepping Ratio LCL DC/DC Converter 384

30.8 Building DC Grids with DC/DC Converters 385

30.9 DC Hubs 387

30.10 Developing DC Grids Using DC Hubs 388

30.11 North Sea DC Grid Topologies 389

Bibliography Part III DC Transmission Grids 392

31 Appendix I Variable Notations 394

32 Appendix II – Analytical Background to Rotating DQ Frame 395

32.1 Transforming AC Variables to DQ Frame 395

32.2 Derivative of an Oscillating Signal in DQ Frame 397

32.3 Transforming an AC System Dynamic Equation to DQ Frame 397

32.4 Transforming N-Order State Space AC System Model to DQ Frame 398

32.5 Static (Steady-State) Modelling in Rotating DQ Coordinate Frame 400

32.6 Representing Product of Oscillating Signals in DQ Frame 400

32.7 Representing Power in DQ Frame 401

33 Appendix III - System Modelling Using Complex Numbers and Phasors 405

34 Appendix IV – Simulink Examples 407

Chapter 3 Examples 407

Chapter 5 Examples 408

Chapter 6 Examples 408

Chapter 8 Examples 410

Chapter 14 Examples 411

Chapter 16 Examples 412

Chapter 17 Examples 414