Power System Dynamics with Computer-Based Modeling and Analysis (Hardcover)

· 제목 : Power System Dynamics with Computer-Based Modeling and Analysis (Hardcover) 
· 분류 : 외국도서 > 과학/수학/생태 > 과학 > 에너지
· ISBN : 9781119487456
· 쪽수 : 1136쪽

About the authors

Preface

Acknowledgement

Part A Power Systems Theories and Practices

Chapter 1 Essentials of Electromagnetism

1.1 Overview

1.2 Voltage , Current ,Resistance and Electric power

1.3 Electromagnetic Induction(Faraday’s law)

1.4 Self Inductance and Mutual Inductance

1.5 Mutual Capacitance

Chapter 2 Complex number Notation (Symbolic Method) and Laplace-transform

2.1 Euler’s formula

2.2 Complex Number Notation based on Euler’s Formula

2.3 Circuit Transient Calculation by Use of Complex Number Notation and Laplace-Transform

2.4 LCR-circuit Transient Calculation

2.4 LCR-circuit Transient Calculation

2.5 Resistive-/Inductive-/Capacitive-Load and Phasor-Expression

Chapter 3 Transmission Line Matrices and Symmetrical Components

3.1 Overhead Transmission Lines with Inductive LR Constants

3.1.1 Three-phase single circuit line without overhead grounding wire

3.1.1.2 Measurement of line impedances Zaa, Zab, Zac

3.1.1.3 Working inductance (Laa – Lab)

3.1.2 Three-phase single circuit line with OGW, OPGW

3.1.3 Three-phase double circuit line with LR constants

3.2 Overhead Transmission Lines with Capacitive Constants

3.2.1 Stray capacitance of three-phase single circuit line

3.2.1.1 Equation for electric charges and voltages on conductors

3.2.1.2 Fundamental voltage and current equations

3.2.2 Three-phase single circuit line with OGW

3.2.3 Three-phase double circuit line

3.3 Symmetrical Coordinate Method (Symmetrical Components)

3.3.1 Fundamental Concept of Symmetrical Components

3.3.2 Definition of Symmetrical Components

3.3.3 Conversion of abc-domain and 012-domain

3.3.3.1 Transformation from abc quantities to 012 quantities

3.3.3.2 Inverse transformation from 012 quantities to abc quantities

3.3.3.3 Three-phase-balanced condition

3.4 Conversion of Three-phase Circuit into Symmetrical Coordinated Circuit

3.5 Transmission Lines by Symmetrical Components

3.5.1 Single circuit line with LR constants

3.5.2 Double circuit line with LR constants

3.5.3 Single circuit line with stray capacitance C

3.5.4 Double circuit line with C constants

3.6 Generator by Symmetrical Components (Simplified Description)

3.6.1 Simplified symmetrical equations

3.6.2 Reactance of generator

Chapter 4 Physics of Transmission Line and the Line Constants

4.1 Inductances

4.1.1 Self-inductance of a straight conductor

4.1.2 Working-inductance of two-parallel conductors in space

4.1.3 Inductances of n-parallel conductors in space

4.1.4 Inductances of three-phase transmission line

4.2 Capacitances

4.2.1 Potential voltages at arbitrary space and conductor surface

4.2.2 Working Capacitance and Capacitance of Single Conductor

4.2.3 Stray capacitance of three-phase single circuit line

4.2.3.1 Equation for electric charges and voltages on conductors

4.2.3.2 Fundamental voltage and current equations

4.2.3.3 Coefficients of potential (paa, pab), coefficients of static capacity (kaa, kab) and capacitances (Caa, Cab)

4.2.3.4 Stray capacitances of phase-balanced transmission lines

4.3 Actual Configuration of Overhead Transmission Line

4.3.1 Actual Structure and the circuit Equations

4.3.2 Equivalent radius of multi-bundled conductors

4.3.4 Line resistance

4.3.5 Typical Transmission Line Constants and Summary of Impedance-/Capacitance- Matrices

4.4 Special properties of working inductance and working capacitance

4.5 MKS rational unit system

4.5.1 MKS rational unit system

4.5.2 Practical MKS units for electrical engineering physics Supplement1: Proof of Equivalent Radius req = r1/n · wn–1/n for a Multi-bundled Conductor

Chapter 5 Per Unit Method

5.1 Fundamental Concept of the PU Method

5.2 PU method of single-phase circuit

5.3 PU Method for Three-phase Circuits

5.3.1 Base Quantities by PU Method for Three-phase Circuits

5.3.2 Unitization of Three-phase Circuit Equations

5.4 Base Quantity Modification of Unitized Impedance

5.5 Unitized Symmetrical Circuit；Numerical Example

Chapter 6 - Transformer Modeling

6.1 Single-phase three-winding transformer

6.1.1 The fundamental equations before unitization

6.1.2 Determination of base quantities for unitization

6.1.3 Unitization of the original equation

6.1.4 Introduction of unitized equivalent circuit

6.2 ⋏ – ⋏ – Δ-connected Three-phase Three-winding Transformer

6.2.1 The fundamental equations before unitization

6.2.2 Determination of base quantities for unitization

6.2.3 Unitization of the original equation

6.2.4 Symmetrical equations and the equivalent circuit

6.3 Three-phase transformers with various winding connections

6.3.1 Core structure and the zero-sequence excitation impedance

6.3.2 Various winding models

6.3.3 Delta windings and the special properties

6.3.4 Note on % IZ of three-winding transformer

6.4 Auto-transformer

6.5 On-load Tap-changing Transformer (LTC Transformer)

6.6 Phase-shifting Transformer

6.6.1 Introduction of fundamental equations

6.6.2 Application for loop circuit lines

6.7 Woodbridge Transformer and Scott Transformer

6.7.1 Woodbridge winding transformer

6.7.2 Scott winding transformer

6.8 Neutral Grounding Transformer

Chapter 7 Fault Analysis based on Symmetrical Components

7.1 Fundamental Concept of Fault Analysis based on Symmetrical Coordinate Method

7.2 Line-to-ground Fault (Phase-a to Ground Fault: 1ϕG)

7.2.1 Condition before the fault

7.2.2 Condition of Phase a to Ground Fault

7.2.3 Voltages and Currents at Virtual Terminal Point f in the 012-domain

7.2.4 Voltages and Currents at an Arbitrary Point under Fault Conditions

7.2.5 Fault under No-load Conditions

7.3 Fault Analysis at Various Fault Modes

7.4 Conductor Opening

7.4.1 Single-phase (phase a) conductor opening

7.4.2 Two-Phases (Phase-b, -c) Conductor Opening

7.5.1 Three-phase Fault: 3ϕS, 3ϕG (Solidly Neutral Grounding System, High-resistive Neutral Grounding System)

7.5.2 Phase b to c Fault: 2ϕS (for Solidly Neutral Grounding System, High-resistive Neutral Grounding System)

7.5.3 Phase a to Ground Fault: 1ϕG (Solidly Neutral Grounding System)

7.5.4Double Line-to-ground (Phases b and c) Fault: 2ϕG (Solidly Neutral Grounding System)

7.5.5 Phase a Line-to-ground Fault: 1ϕG (High-resistive Neutral Grounding System)

7.5.6Double Line-to-ground (Phases b and c) Fault: 2ϕG (High-resistive Neutral Grounding System)

Chapter 8 Fault Analysis by αβ0-Method

8.1 αβ0-Method (Clarke- Components)

8.1.1 Definition of αβ0-Coordinate Method (αβ0- Components)

8.1.2 The Transformation of Arbitrary Waveform Quantities

8.1.3 Interrelation Between αβ0-Components and Symmetrical Components

8.1.4 Circuit Equation and Impedance by the αβ0- Coordinate Method

8.1.5 Single Circuit Transmission Line

8.1.6 Double circuit transmission line

8.1.7 Generator

8.1.8 Transformer Impedances and Load Impedances in the αβ0-domain

8.2 Fault Analysis by αβ0-Components

8.2.1 Line-to-Ground Fault (Phase a to Ground Fault: 1ɸG)

8.2.2 The b–c Phase Line to Ground Fault

8.2.3 Other Mode Short-Circuit Faults

8.2.4 Open-Conductor Mode Faults

8.3 Advantages of αβ0-Method

8.4 Fault Transient Analysis by Symmetrical Components andαβ0- Method

8.4.1 Transmission Line Equations for Transient Analysis

8.4.2 Comparison of Transient Analysis by Symmetrical Components and αβ0-Method

Chapter 9 Power Cable

9.1. Power Cable and the Structural Features

9.1.1 Structures of CV(XLPE)-cable and OF-cable

9.1.2 Features of Power Cable

9.1.2.1 Insulation

9.1.2.3 Various Environmental Layout Conditions and Required Withstanding Stresses

9.1.2.4 Metallic Sheath Circuit and Outer-Covering Insulation

9.1.2.5 Electrical Specification and Factory Testing Levels

9.2 Circuit Constants of Power Cable

9.2.1 Inductances of Cable

9.2.2 Capacitance and Surge Impedance of Cable

9.3 Metallic Sheath and Outer Covering

9.3.1 Role of Metallic Sheath and Outer Covering

9.3.2 Double Sheath-End Terminals Grounding Method (Solid-Sheath-Bonding Method)

9.3.3 Single Sheath-End Terminal Grounding Method (Single-Sheath-Bonding Method)

9.3.4 Cross-Bonding Metallic-Shielding Method

9.3.5 Surge Protection at Jointing Boxes

Chapter 10 - Synchronous Generator:Part1 - Circuit Theory 

10.1: Generator Model in Phase abc- Domain

10.1.1 Stator and Rotor Windings Structure

10.1.2 Relative Angular Position Between Rotor and Stator

10.1.3 Three-Phase abc- Domain Circuit Equations and Inductance Matrices

10.1.4 Introduction of Stator Inductance Matrix: labc(t)

10.1.5 Introduction of Stator and Rotor Mutual Inductance Matrix labc–F(t), lF–abc(t)

10.2 dq0 Method (dq0 Components)

10.2.1 Definition of dq0 Method and the Physical Meaning

10.2.2 Mutual Relation of dq0, abc, and 012 Domains

10.2.3 Characteristics of dq0 Domain Quantities

10.3 Transformation of Generator Equations from abc to dq0 Domain

10.3.1 Transformation of Stator Voltage Equations to dq0 Domain

10.3.2 Transformation of Rotor Voltage Equation

10.3.3 Transformation of Stator Flux Linkage Equation

10.3.4 Transformation of Rotor Flux Linkage Equation

10.4 Physical Meanings of Generator’s Equations on dq0 Domain

10.4.1 Main Fluxes and Leakage Fluxes

10.4.2 Self-Inductance Ld, Lq

10.5 Generator dq0 Domain Equations

10.5.1 Setting of Base Quantities for s-coils, f-coil, k-coils

10.5.2 Unitization of Generator dq0 Domain Equations

10.5.2.1 Unitization of Stator Voltage Equation

10.5.2.2 Unitization of Rotor Voltage Equation

10.5.2.3 Unitization of Stator Flux linkage Equation

10.5.2.4 Unitization of Rotor Flux Linkage equation

10.6 Generator dq0 Domain Equivalent Circuit

10.7 Generator Operating Characteristics and its Vector Diagram on d- and q-axes Plane

10.8 Generator Transient Reactance

10.8.1 Initial Condition Just Before Sudden Disturbance

10.8.2 Assorted d-axis and q-axis Reactance for Transient Phenomena

10.8.2.1 Time Interval t = 0–3 cycles (50ms)

10.8.2.2 Time Interval t = 3 to Approximately 60 cycles (50ms to 1 sec)

10.8.2.3 Time Interval t = 1 sec to Steady-State Condition)

10.9 Symmetrical Equivalent Circuits of Generators

10.9.1Positive-sequence circuit

10.9.1.1 Sub-Transient Period: t = 0–3 cycles (0–50ms)

10.9.1.2 Transient Period: t = 3 to 60 cycles (50ms to 1 sec)

10.9.1.3 Steady-State Period: After 1 sec

10.9.1.4 Evaluation of positive sequence equivalent circuit

10.9.2 Negative-sequence circuit

10.9.3 Positive-sequence current behavior on d-axis circuit

10.9.4 Negative-sequence current behavior on d-axis circuit

10.9.5 Zero-sequence circuit

10.10 Laplace-transformed Generator Equations and the Time Constants

10.10.1 Laplace-Transformed Equations

10.10.2 Open-Circuit Transient Time Constants

10.10.3 Short-Circuit Transient Time Constants

10.10.4 Short-Circuit Time Constant of Stator (Armature) Winding

10.11 Measuring of Generator Reactance

10.11.1 Measuring of d-axis Reactance and Short-Circuit Ratio SCR

10.11.2 Measuring of Negative Sequence Reactance

10.11.3 Measuring of Zero Sequence Reactance

10.12. Relation Between the dq0 Domain and αβ0 Domain

10.13 Calculation of Generator Short-circuit Transient Current under Load Operation

10.13.1 Transient Current Calculation by Laplace Transform

10.13.2 Transient Short Circuit Current Calculation of No-Load Generator

Chapter 11 Synchronous Generator:Part2 – Characteristics as Machinery

11.1 Apparent Power P+jQ by abc-,012-,dq0- Domains

11.1.1Definition of Apparent Power

11.1.2 Expanded Apparent Power for Arbitrary Waveform Voltages and Currents

11.1.3 Apparent Power of a Three-phase Circuit in the 012 Domain

11.1.4 Apparent Power in dq0 Domain

11.2 Mechanical (Kinetic) Power and Generating (Electrical) Power

11.2.1Mechanical Input Power and Electrical Output Power

11.2.2 Steady-State Condition

11.2.3 Transient Condition by Sudden Disturbance

11.3Kinetic Equation of Generator

11.3.1 Dynamic Characteristics of Generator (Kinetic Motion Equation)

11.3.2Dynamic Equation of Generator as Electrical Expression

11.3.3 Power Conversion between Rotor Mechanical Power and Stator Electrical Power

11.3.4 Speed Governors

11.4 Generator Operating Characteristics in P-Q (or p-q) Coordinates

11.5 Ratings and Capability Curve of Generator

11.5.1 Upper Limit Curve of Apparent Power P + jQ or p + jq (curve)

11.5.2 Upper Limit Curve of Excitation Voltage Efd (Equivalent to if) (curve)

11.5.3 Stability Limit Curve (curve)

11.5.4 Limit Curve Against Extraordinary Local Heating on Stator Coil End (curve)

11.6 Generator’s Locus in pq- Coordinate Plane Under Various Operating Conditions

11.6.1 The Locus Under Fixed excitation Efd

11.6.2 Locus Under Fixed Terminal Voltage eG

11.6.3 Locus Under Fixed Effective Power P

11.6.4 Locus Under Fixed Terminal Current iG

11.7 Leading Power-Factor (Under-Excitation Domain) Operation, and UEL Function by AVR

11.7.1Generator as a Reactive Power Generator

11.7.2 Under-Excitation (Leading Power-Factor Operation) and the Problem of Overheat at Stator Core End

11.7.3 UEL (Under-Excitation Limit) Protection by AVR

11.8 Operation at Over-Excitation (Lagging Power-Factor Operation)

11.9 Thermal Generators’ Weak Points (Negative-sequence Current, Harmonic Current, Shaft torsional Distortion)

11.9.1 Generator’s Volume Size and Unit Capacity

11.9.2 Critical I2-Withstanding Capability

11.9.3 Rotor Overheat Caused by d.c. and Higher Harmonic Currents

11.9.3. 1n-th Order Harmonic Current Flowing into a-phase Coil of a Generator

11.9.3.2 D.C. Current Flow

11.9.3.3Three-Phase-Balanced nth-Order Current Flow

11.10 Transient Torsional Twisting Torque of TG Coupled Shaft

11.10.1 Transient Torsional Torque Caused by Sudden Network Disturbance

11.10.2 Amplification of Torsional Torque

11.10.3 Sub-Synchronous Resonance (SSR)

11.11 General Description of Modern Thermal/Nuclear TG Unit

11.11.1 Steam Turbine (ST) Unit for Thermal Generation

11.11.2 Combined Cycle (CC) System With Gas-/Steam- Turbines

11.11.3 ST Unit for Nuclear Generation

Chapter 12 Steady-State/Transient/Dynamic Stability

12.1 P-δCurve Q-δCurve

12.2 Power Transfer Limit of a Grid-Connected Generator (Steady-State Stability)

12.2.1 Apparent Power of Generator

12.2.2 Power Transfer Limit of Generator (Steady-state Stability)

12.2.3 Circular Diagram

12.2.4 Mechanical Analogy of Steady-State Stability

12.3 Transient Stability

12.3.1 Definition of Steady-State Stability, Transient Stability, Dynamic Stability

12.3.2 Mechanical Acceleration Equation for the Two-generators System

12.3.3 Transient Stability under Fault Condition (Equal-Quadrant Method)

12.3.3.1 Study Case 1: The Transient Stability Is Successfully Maintained

12.3.3.2Study Case 2: The System Condition Exceeds the Transient Stability Limit

12.3.3.3 Study Case 3: High Speed Reclosing Is Conducted

12.4 Dynamic Stability

12.4.1 Quick Excitation Control by AVR

12.4.2 Quick Driving-Power Adjustment By Speed-Governor Control

12.5 Four-terminal Circuit and the Curve under Fault Conditions

12.5.1 Four-Terminal Circuit

12.5.2 Four-Terminal Circuit of a Transmission Line Before Fault

12.5.3 Four-terminal Circuit of a Transmission Line under Fault

12.6 P-δ Curve under Various Fault Mode Conditions

12.6.1 Three Phase Fault Mode (3S)

12.6.2 Double Phase Fault Mode (2S)

12.6.3 Single Phase Fault Mode(1G)

12.6.4 Double Phase Opening Mode(2Op)

12.6.5 Single Phase Opening Mode(1Op)

12.7 P–Q–V Characteristics and Voltage Instability (Voltage Avalanche)

12.7.1Apparent power at Sending Terminal and Receiving Terminal

12.7.2 Voltage Sensitivity Characteristics by Small Disturbance ΔP, ΔQ

12.7.3 Circle Diagram of Apparent Power

12.7.4 P–Q–V characteristics, and P–V and Q–V Curves

12.7.5 P-Q-V Characteristics of Load

12.7.6 P-V Mode Voltage Collapse (P–V Avalanche)

12.7.7 Q-V Mode Voltage Collapse (Q–V Avalanche)

12.7.8 P–Q–V Steady-State Stability

12.8 Generator Characteristics With AVR

12.8.1 V–Q control (voltage and reactive power control) of power systems

12.8.2 Transfer Function of Generator

12.8.3 Transfer Function of Generator Plus Load

12.8.4 Transfer Function of Generator under Special Load Condition

12.8.5 Duties of AVR

12.8.6 Transfer Function of Generator plus AVR

12.8.7 Transfer Function of Total Power System Including AVR and Load

12.9 Generator Operation Limit With and Without AVR on p-q Coordinates

12.9.1 Generator Operation Without AVR

12.9.2 Generator Operation With AVR

12.9.3 Transmission Line Charging By Generator With and Without AVR

12.9.3.1 Line Charging By Generator Without AVR

12.9.3.2 Line Charging By Generator With AVR

12.10 V–Q (Voltage and Reactive Power) Control by AVR

12.10.1 Reactive power distribution for multiple generators and cross-current control

12.10.2 P–f control and V–Q control

Chapter 13 Induction Generator And Motor (Induction Machine: IM)

13.1 Introduction of Induction Motor and Generator

13.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generator/Motor

13.2.1 abc- Domain Voltages and Currents Equations

13.2.2 dq0 Domain Transformed Equations

13.2.3 Phasor Expression of dq0 Domain Transformed Equations

13.2.4 Driving Power and Torque of Induction Machines

13.2.5 Steady-State Operation

13.3 Squirrel-Cage Type Induction Motors

13.3.1 Circuit Equations

13.3.2 Torque-Speed Characteristics Equation of Squirrel-Cage Induction Machine

13.3.3 Reverse-/Start-up& Ordinary Running-/Over-Speed- Operating Ranges

13.3.4 Torque, Air-Gap Flux, Speed and Power as Basis of Power Electronic Control

13.3.5 Start-Up Operation

13.3.6 Rated Speed Operation

13.3.7 Over Speed Operation and Braking Operation

13.4 Proportional Relations of Mechanical Quantities and Electrical Quantities as Basis of Power-Electronic Control

Chapter 14 Directional Distance Relay and R-X Diagram

14.1 Overview of Protective Relays

14.1.1 The Missions and Duties of Protective Relays

14.1.2 Classification of Relays

14.2 Directional Distance Relays (DZ-Ry) and R–X Coordinates Plane

14.2.1 Fundamental Algorithms of Directional Distance Relays

14.2.2 R–X coordinates (R-X Diagram) and P–Q coordinates

14.2.3 R-X Characteristics and algorithms of Distance-Relays

14.3 R-X diagram Locus under Fault Conditions

14.3.1 Directional Distance Relay(44S-1,2,3 relays) for Line to Line Fault Detection

14.3.2 Directional Distance Relay(44G-relays) for Line to Ground Fault Detection

14.3.3 Behavior of 44G-relays against Line to Line Short Circuit Fault

14.3.4 Directional Grounding Relay (67G-relays) for High-impedance Neutral Grounded System

14.5 Impedance Locus under Ordinary Load Condition and Step-out Condition

14.5.1 Impedance Locus under Ordinary Load Condition

14.5.2 Impedance Locus under Transient Condition

14.5.2.1The circle locus by changing under fixed  (the k-circles)

14.5.2.2 The circle locus by changing  from 0° to 360° under fixed k (the -circles)

14.5.3 The impedance locus under step-out condition

14.5.4 Step-out detection by Directional Distance Relay

14.6 Impedance Locus under Faults with Load Flow Condition

14.7 Loss of Excitation Detection by Distance Relay (40-Relay)

Chpater 15 Lightning-/Switching Surge Phenomena and Breaker Switching

15.1 Travelling Wave on a Transmission Line and the Equations

15.1.1 Travelling-Wave Equation

15.1.2 The Ideal (No-Loss) Line

15.1.3 The Distortion-Less Line

15.2 Four-terminal Network Equation Between Two Arbitrary Points

15.3 Examination of Line Constants

15.3.1 Overhead Transmission Line Constants

15.3.2 Power Cables Constants

15.3.3 Approximation of Distributed-Constants Circuit and Accuracy of Concentrated-Constants Circuit

15.4 Behavior of Travelling Wave at Transition Points

15.4.1 Incident Wave, Transmitted Wave and Reflected Wave at a Transition Point

15.4.2 Voltage And Current Travelling Waves at Typical Transition Points

15.5 Surge Overvoltages and Their Three Different and Confusing Notations

15.6 Behaviour of Travelling Waves at a Lightning-Strike Point

15.7 Travelling Wave Phenomena of Three-phase Transmission Line

15.7.1 Surge Impedance of Three-Phase Line

15.7.2 Symmetrical Coordinate Analysis of Lightning Strike

15.7.3 Line-to-ground and Line-to-line Travelling Waves

15.8 Reflection Lattice and Transient Behaviour Modes

15.8.1 Reflection Lattice

15.8.2 Oscillatory and Non-oscillatory Convergence

15.9 Switching Surge Phenomena Caused by Breaker Tripping

15.9.1 Calculation of Fault Current Tripping (Single-Phase Single Source Circuit)

15.9.2 Calculation of Fault Current Tripping (Double Power Source Circuit)

15.9.3 Breaker Transient Recovery Voltage(TRV) and RRRV

15.10 Breaker Phase Voltages and Recovery Voltages after Various Fault Tripping

15.11 Three Phase Breaker Transient Recovery Voltages across the Independent Poles.

15.11.1 First Pole Tripping

15.11.2 Second and Third Poles Tripping

15.12 Insulation Coordination

15.12.1 Concept and Design Criteria of insulation coordination

15.12.2 Insulation levels for power systems under 245 kV (Table 15.3A)

15.12.3 Insulation levels for power systems over 245 kV (Tables 21.2B and C)

Chpater 16Overvoltage Phenomena

16.1 Neutral Grounding Methods

16.2 Arc-suppression Coil (Petersen Coil) Neutral Grounded Method

16.3 Overvoltages Caused by a Line-to-ground Fault

16.4 Other Low Frequency Overvoltage Phenomena(Non-resonant Phenomena)

16.4.1 Ferranti effect

16.4.2 Overvoltage by transmission line charging

16.4.3 Self-excitation of Generator

16.4.4 Sudden Load Tripping or Load Failure

16.5 Lower Frequency Resonant Overvoltages

16.5.1 Positive-sequence Series Resonance

16.5.2 Series Resonance under Temporary Conditions (Faults, Phase Opening, Reclosing Time, etc.)

16.5.3 Transformer Winding Resonant Oscillation Triggered by Switching Surge

16.5.4 Ferro-resonance caused by Core Saturation

16.6 Interrupted Ground Fault of Cable Line in a Neutral Ungrounded System

16.7.1 Overvoltages caused by Breaker Closing (Breaker Closing Surge)

16.7.2 Overvoltages caused by Breaker Tripping (Breaker Tripping Surge)

16.7.3 Switching Surge caused by Line Switches

16.8 Overvoltage Phenomena caused by Lightning Strikes

16.8.1 Direct Strike on Phase Conductors (Direct Flashover)

16.8.2 Direct Strike on OGW or Tower Structure (Inverse Flashover)

16.8.3 Induced Strokes (Electrostatic Induced Strokes, Electromagnetic Induced Strokes)

16.8.4 Capacitive Induced Lightning Surges

16.8.5 Inductive Induced Lightning Surges

Chapter 17 Insulation Coordination

17.1 Overvoltages as Insulation Stresses

17.2 Classification of Overvoltages

17.2.1 Maximum Continuous (Power Frequency) Overvoltages (MCOV): U_s

17.2.2.1 Single Line-to-ground Faults

17.2.2.3 Loss of Neutral Grounding

17.2.3 Slow-front Overvoltages

17.2.4 Fast-front Overvoltages

17.2.5 Very Fast-front Overvoltages

17.3 Fundamental Concept of Insulation Coordination

17.3.1 Concept of Insulation Coordination

17.3.2 Specific Principles of Insulation Strength and Breakdown

17.3.2.1 Insulation Design Criteria of Overhead Transmission Line

17.3.2.2 Insulation Design Criteria of Substation and Substation Apparatus

17.3.2.3 Insulation Design Criteria of Power Cable Line

17.4 Countermeasures on Transmission Lines to Reduce Overvoltages and Flashover

17.4.1 Adoption of Plural Overhead Grounding Wires (OGWs, OPGWs)

17.4.2 Reasonable Allocation/Air Clearances for Conductors/ Grounding Wires

17.4.3 Reduction of Tower Surge Impedance

17.4.4 Adoption of Arcing Horns (Arcing Rings)

17.5 Tower Mounted Arrester Devices

17.6 Adoption of Unequal Circuit Insulation (Double Circuit Line)

17.7 Adoption of High-speed Reclosing

17.8 Overvoltage Protection by Arrester at Substations

17.8.1 Surge Protection by Metal–oxide Surge Arresters

17.8.2 Metal–oxide Arresters

17.8.3 Arrester Ratings and the Classification and Selection

17.8.4 Separation Effects of Station Arresters

17.9 Station Protection by OGWs, and Grounding Resistance Reduction

17.9.1 Direct lightning Strike on Substation

17.9.2 OGWs in Station Area

17.9.3 Reduction of Station Grounding Resistance and Surge Impedance

17.10 Insulation Coordination Details

17.10.1 Definition and Some Principal Matters of Standards

17.10.2 Insulation configuration

17.10.3 Insulation Withstanding Level and BIL, BSL

17.10.4 Standard Insulation Levels and The Principles

17.10.5 Insulation Levels for Power Systems under 245 kV (Table 17.2A)

17.10.6 Insulation Levels for Power Systems over 245 kV (Tables 21.2B and C)

17.10.7Evaluation of Degree of Insulation Coordination

17.10.8 Insulation of Power Cable

17.11 Transfer Surge Voltages Through the Transformer, and Generator Protection

17.11.1 Electrostatic Transfer Surge Voltage(Single-phase Transformer)

17.11.2 Electrostatic Transfer Surge Voltage (Three-phase Transformer)

17.11.3 Transfer Voltage caused at the Generator Terminal Side

17.11.4 Transfer Surge Protection

17.11.5 Electromagnetic Transfer Voltage

17.11.6 Electromagnetic Transfer Voltage

17.12 Transformer Internal High-frequency Voltage Oscillation Phenomena

17.12.1 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer in High Frequency(HF) Domain

17.12.2 Transient Oscillatory Voltages caused by Incident Surge

17.12.3 Internal Oscillatory Voltages(Non-oscillatory Windings) Reduction

17.13 Oil-filled Transformers Versus Gas-filled Transformers

17.14 Supplement: Proof that Equation 17.21 is the Solution of Equation

Chapter 18 Harmonics and Waveform Distortion

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Motor Drive Application

18.2.1 Concept of Induction Motor Driving Control

18.2.2 Volts Per Hertz (V/f) Control (or AVAF Inverter Control)

18.2.3 Constant Torque and Constant Speed Control

18.2.4 Space Vector PWM Control of Induction Motor (Sinusoidal Control Method)

18.2.5 Space Vector PWM Control (Rotor-Flux Oriented Control)

18.2.6 dq-Sequence Currents PWM Control (Sinusoidal Control Practice)

18.3 Static Var Compensators (SVC:Thyristor Based Scheme)

18.3.1 SVC (Static Var Compensators)

18.3.2 TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactors) and TCC (Thyristor Controlled Capacitors)

18.3.3 Asymmetrical Control Method with PWM Control for SVC

18.3.4 Statcom or SVG (Static Var Generator)

18.4 Active Filter

18.4.1 Base Concept of Active Filters

18.4.2 Active Filter by dq-Method

18.4.3 Vector PWM Control Based on dq-Method

18.4.4 Converter Modelling as dq-Coordinates Laplace Transfer Function

18.4.5 Active Filter by pq-Method or by αβ-Method

18.5 Generator Excitation System

18.6 Adjustable Speed Pumped Storage Generator-Motor Unit

18.7 Wind Generation

18.8 Small Hydro Generation

18.9 Solar Generation (Photovoltaic Generation)

18.10 High-Voltage DC Transmission (HVDC Transmission)

18.11 FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) Technology

18.11.1 Overview of FACTS

18.11.2 Thyristor Controlled-/Protected-Series Capacitor

18.12 Railway Applications

18.12.1 Railway Substation Systems

18.12.2 Electric Train Engine Motor Driving Systems

18.13 UPSs (Uninterruptible Power Supplies)

Chapter 19 Power Electronics ApplicationsPart1 Devices

19.1 Power Electronics and the Fundamental Concept

19.2 Power Switching by Power Devices

19.3 Snubber Circuit

19.4 Voltage Conversion by Switching

19.5.2 Diode

19.5.3 Thyristor

19.5.4 GTO (Gate turn-off thyristor)

19.5.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) or Power Ttransistor

19.5.6 Power MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

19.5.7 IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors)

19.5.8 IPM (Intelligent Power Module)

19.6 Mathematical Backgrounds for Power Electronic Application Analysis

Chapter 20 Power Electronics Application Part2 ; Circuit Theory

20.1 AC to DC Conversion: Rectifier by a Diode

20.1.1 Single-Phase Rectifier with Pure Resistive Load R

20.1.2Inductive Load and the Role of Series Connected Inductance L

20.1.3 Roles of Freewheeling Diodes and Current Smoothing Reactor

20.1.4 Single-Phase Diode Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

20.1.5 Roles of Voltage Smoothing Capacitor

20.1.6 Three-Phase Half-Bridge Rectifier

20.1.7 Current Over-Lapping

20.1.8 Three-Phase Full-Bridge Rectifier

20.2 AC to DC Controlled Conversion: Rectifier by Thyristor

20.2.1 Single-Phase Half-Bridge Rectifier by a Thyristor

20.2.2 Single-Phase Full-Bridge Rectifier with Thyristor

20.2.3 Three-Phase Full-Bridge Rectifier by Thyristor

20.2.4 Higher Harmonics and Ripple Ratio

20.2.5 Commutating Reactance: Effects of Source Side Reactance

20.3 DC to DC Converters (DC to DC Choppers)

20.3.1 Voltage Step-Down Converter (Buck Chopper)

20.3.2 Step-Up (Boost) Converter (Boost Chopper)

20.3.3 Buck-Boost Converter (Step-Down/Step-Up Converter)

20.3.4 Two-/Four-Quadrant Converter (Composite Chopper)

20.3.5 Pulse width Modulation Control (PWM) of dc-dc Converter

20.3.6 Multi-Phase Converter

20.4 DC to AC Inverter

20.4.1 Overview of Inverter

20.4.2 Single-Phase Type Inverter

20.4.3 Three-Phase Type Inverter

20.5 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Control of Inverter

20.5.1 Principles of PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Control (Triangle Modulation)

20.5.2 Another PWM Control Scheme (Tolerance Band Control)

20.6 AC to AC Converter (Cycloconverter)

Chapter 21 Power Electronics Applications Part3 Control Theory

21.2 Motor Drive Application

21.2.1 Concept of Induction Motor Driving Control

21.2.2 Volts Per Hertz (V/f) Control (or AVAF Inverter Control)

21.2.3 Constant Torque and Constant Speed Control

21.2.4 Space Vector PWM Control of Induction Motor (Sinusoidal Control Method)

21.2.5 Space Vector PWM Control (Rotor-Flux Oriented Control)

21.2.6 dq-Sequence Currents PWM Control (Sinusoidal Control Practice)

21.3 Static Var Compensators (SVC:Thyristor Based Scheme)

21.3.1 SVC (Static Var Compensator)

21.3.2 TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactors) and TCC (Thyristor Controlled Capacitor)

21.3.3 Asymmetrical Control Method with PWM Control for SVC

21.3.4 Statcom or SVG (Static Var Generator)

21.4 Active Filter

21.4.1 Base Concept of Active Filter

21.4.2 Active Filter by dq-Method

21.4.3 Vector PWM Control Based on dq-Method

21.4.4 Converter Modelling as dq-Coordinates Laplace Transfer Function

21.4.5 Active Filter by pq-Method or by αβ-Method

21.5 Generator Excitation System

21.6 Adjustable Speed Pumped Storage Generator-Motor Unit

21.7 Wind Generation

21.8 Small Hydro Generation

21.9 Solar Generation (Photovoltaic Generation)

21.10 High-Voltage DC Transmission (HVDC Transmission)

21.11 FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) Technology

21.11.1 Overview of FACTS

21.11.2 Thyristor Controlled-/Protected-Series Capacitor

21.12 Railway Application

21.12.1 Railway Substation System

21.12.2 Electric Train Engine Motor Driving System

21.13 UPSs (Uninterruptible Power Supply)

Appendix A

Appendix B

Part BDigital Computations Theories

Chapter 1 Digital Computation Basics

1.1 Introduction 5

1.2 Network Types 6

1.2.1 Active Elements and Passive Elements 6

1.2.2 Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements 9

1.2.3 Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements 9

1.3 Circuit Elements 10

1.3.1 Resistor 10

1.3.2 Inductor 13

1.3.3 Capacitor 15

1.3.4 R-L-C Networks 17

1.3.5 Circuit with Lumped Elements 21

1.4 Ohms Law 22

1.5 Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws 24

1.5.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) 24

1.5.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 25

1.6 Electrical Division Principle 25

1.6.1 Current Division 25

1.6.2 Voltage Division 26

1.7 Instantaneous, Average & RMS values 27

1.7.1 Root Mean Square (RMS) 28

1.8 Nodal Formulation 29

1.8.1 Superposition Theorem 29

1.8.2 Nodal Analysis 32

1.8.3 Mesh Analysis 34

1.9 Procedure of Mesh Analysis 34

1.9.1 Equivalent Circuit 36

1.10 Norton’s and Thevenin’s Equivalents 38

1.10.1 Thevenin’s Theorem 38

1.10.2 Norton’s Theorem 41

1.11 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 43

1.11.1 Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 43

1.12 Linear System Mathematics 47

1.12.1 Matrix Algebra 47

1.12.2 Matrix Types 47

1.12.3 Matrix Addition & Subtraction 48

1.12.4 Matrix Multiplication 48

1.12.5 Matrix Determinant 49

1.12.6 Triangle Matrix – Lower (L) and Upper (U) 50

1.12.7 Matrix Inversion 50

1.12.8 Adjugate and Cofactor of Matrix 52

1.13 Network Topology 54

1.13.1 Basic Terminology of Network Topology 54

1.13.2 Types of Graphs 55

1.13.3 Tree 57

1.13.4 Co-Tree 57

1.13.5 Matrix Operations 59

1.13.6 Gauss Jordan Elimination 62

1.13.7 LU Factorization 62

1.13.8 LU Factorization with Partial Inversion or Pivoting (LUP) 63

1.13.9 LU Factorization with Complete Inversion 63

1.14 Power System Matrices 63

1.14.1 Incidence Matrix 64

1.14.2 Fundamental Loop Matrix 65

1.14.3 Fundamental Cut-set Matrix 66

1.14.4 Algorithms for formation of network matrices 68

1.14.5 Singular Transformation 69

1.14.6 Bus Admittance Matrix Using Nodal Analysis 72

1.14.7 Sparse Matrix techniques 77

1.15 Transformer Modeling 79

1.15.1 Ideal Transformer 79

1.15.2 Three Phase Transformer Model 81

1.15.3 Scott-T Connected Transformer 82

1.15.4 Le-Blanc Connected Transformer 84

1.16 Transmission Line Modeling 85

1.16.1 Long Transmission Line Model 86

1.16.2 Lumped Parametric Π Equivalent Circuit of Transmission Lines 87

1.16.3 Short-length Line 87

1.16.4 Medium-length Line 88

1.16.5 Load Modeling 89

Chapter 2 Power Flow Methods

2.1 Newton-Raphson Method 90

2.2 Gauss-Seidel Method 91

2.3 Adaptive Newton-Raphson Method 92

2.4 Fast-Decoupled Method 92

Chapter 3: Short Circuit Methods 93

3.1 ANSI/IEEE Calculation Methods 93

3.1.1 ½ Cycle Network 93

3.1.2 1.5-4 Cycle Network 94

3.1.3 30 Cycle Network 95

3.1.4 ANSI Multiplication Factor 95

3.1.5 Momentary (1/2 Cycle) Short-Circuit Current Calc. (Buses and HVCB) 96

3.1.6 High Voltage Circuit Breaker Interrupting Duty Calculation 97

3.1.7 Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Interrupting Duty Calculation 99

3.1.8 Fuse Interrupting Short-Circuit Current Calculation 100

3.1.9 Center-Tap Transformer Impedance Model for 1-Phase Short-Circuit 100

3.1.10 Short-Circuit Calculations using Constant Current Sources 102

3.1.11 SC Model for Constant-Current Sources during Unbalanced Faults 111

3.2 IEC Calculation Methods 113

3.2.1 General Description of Calculation Methodology 113

3.2.2 Definition of Terms 113

3.2.3 Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current Calculation 115

3.2.4 Peak Short-Circuit Current Calculation 115

3.2.5 Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current Calculation 116

3.2.6 DC Component of Short-Circuit Current Calculation 116

3.2.7 Asymmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current Calculation 116

3.2.8 Steady-State Short-Circuit Current Calculation 116

3.2.9 Meshed and Non-Meshed Network 117

3.2.10 Adjustment of Ib 117

3.2.11 Modeling of Power Station Unit 117

3.2.12 Network Bus, Connecting Bus and Auxiliary System Bus for a Power Station Unit 118

3.2.13 Wind Power Station Units 118

3.2.14 Power Station Units with full size converter 119

3.2.15 IEC Short-Circuit Mesh Determination Method 120

3.2.16 Comparison of Device Rating and Short-Circuit Duty. 122

3.2.17 Calculation of IEC Device Capability 123

Chapter 4 Harmonics 125

4.1 Problem Formulation 125

4.1.1 Characteristic Harmonic Currents 127

4.1.2 Interharmonics 129

4.1.3 Subharmonics 129

4.2 Methodology & Standards 130

4.2.1 Ideal Current Source 132

4.2.2 Thevenin/Norton Equivalent All Sources 132

4.3 Harmonic Indices 133

4.3.1 Harmonic Factor 133

4.3.2 Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD) 134

4.3.3 Arithmetic Summation (ASUM) 134

4.3.4 Telephone Influence Factor 135

4.3.5 I*T Product 135

4.3.6 V-T Product 135

4.3.7 c Message 135

4.3.8 Telephone form factor (TFF) 136

4.3.9 Distortion index (DIN) 136

4.3.10 Total Interharmonic Distortion (TIHD) 136

4.3.11 Total Subharmonic Distortion (TSHD) 136

4.3.12 Group Total Harmonic Distortion (THDG) 137

4.3.13 Subgroup Total Harmonic Distortion (THDS) 137

4.3.14 Harmonic Power Factor 137

4.4 Harmonic Component Modeling 139

4.4.1 Harmonic Current Source 139

4.4.2 Harmonic Voltage Source 140

4.5 Power System Components 140

4.5.1 Long transmission lines and cables 140

4.5.2 Short line model 141

4.5.3 Synchronous generator 142

4.5.4 Induction machine 142

4.5.5 Conventional Loads 143

4.6 System Resonance 143

4.7 Harmonic Mitigation 145

4.7.1 Passive Filters 146

4.7.2 Zig-Zag Grounding Transformer 148

4.7.3 Multiple Rectifier Bridges & Transformer Phase Shifting 149

Chapter 5 Reliability 151

5.1 Methodology & Standards 151

5.2 Performance Indices 154

Chapter 6 Numerical Integration Methods 158

6.1 Accuracy 158

6.2 Stability 158

6.3 Stiffness 160

6.4 Predictor-Corrector 161

6.5 Runge-Kutta 162

Chapter 7 Power Flow 164

7.1 Power Flow Injections 164

7.2 Voltage Magnitude Constraints 164

7.3 Line Flow Thermal Constraints 164

7.4 Line Flow Constraints as Current Limitations 165

7.5 Line Flow Constraints as Voltage Angle Constraints 165

PartC Analytical Practices and Examples

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Planning Studies 2

1.2 Need for Power System Analysis 3

1.3 Computers in Power Engineering 3

1.4 Study Approach 3

1.5 Operator Training 8

1.6 System Reliability & Maintenance 8

1.7 Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP) 8

1.7.1 Virtual Reality Operation 8

1.7.2 Total Integration of Data 9

1.7.3 One-Line Diagrams 9

1.7.4 Simplicity in Data Entry 10

1.7.5 Multi-Dimensional Database 10

1.7.6 Other ETAP Analysis Modules 11

Chapter 2 One-Line Diagram

2.1 Introduction 2

2.2 Engineering Parameters 2

2.3 One-Line Diagram Symbols 3

2.4 Power System Configurations 8

2.4.1 Transmission & Distribution Substation Configurations 9

2.4.2 Primary Distribution Configurations 11

2.4.3 Secondary Distribution Configurations 13

2.5 Network Topology Processing 14

2.6 Illustrative Example – Per Unit & Single-Line Diagram 18

Chapter 3 Load Flow

3.1. Introduction 2

3.2. Study Objectives 2

3.3. Problem Formulation 3

3.3.1. Generation & Load Bus Modeling 4

3.3.2. Modeling of Loads (ZIP) 5

3.4. Calculation Methodology 5

3.4.1. Load Flow Convergence 8

3.5. Required Data for ETAP 9

3.6. Data Collection and Preparation 9

3.7. Model Validation 10

3.8. Study Scenarios 12

3.9. Contingency Analysis 14

3.9.1. Bus Voltage Security Index ( ) 14

3.9.2. Real Power Flow Change Index ( ) 14

3.9.3. Reactive Power Flow Change Index ( ) 15

3.9.4. Branch Overloading Security Index ( ) 15

3.10. Optimal or Optimum Power Flow 15

3.11. Illustrative Examples 19

3.11.1. Example – Load flow study for Transmission System 19

3.11.2. Example – Load flow study for Industrial System 23

3.11.3. Example – Load flow study for Renewable Energy System 31

3.11.4. System Modeling 31

3.11.5. Example – Impedance and Ampacity of Transmission Lines 43

3.11.6. Example – Cable Ampacity and Cable Sizing of Industrial System 45

3.11.7. Example – Underground Cable for Industrial System 49

3.11.8. Example - Optimal Power Flow for Transmission System 53

Chapter 4 Short Circuit / Fault Analysis

4.1 Introduction 2

4.2 Analysis Objectives 2

4.3 Methodology and Standards 9

4.3.1 Methods 9

4.3.2 Standards 10

4.3.3 Calculation Procedure 16

4.3.4 Required Data for Short Circuit Analysis 17

4.4 Study Scenarios 19

4.4.1 Short Circuit Contributions 20

4.4.2 Switch / Protective Device Topology 20

4.5 Results and Reports 21

4.5.1 ANSI Standard 21

4.5.2 IEC Standard 21

4.5.3 Bus Alert 21

4.5.4 Protective Device Alert 22

4.5.5 Short Circuit Result Analyzer 23

4.6 Illustrative Examples 24

4.6.1 Sizing Buses & Breakers per ANSI Standard 24

4.6.2 Example – IEC Short Circuit 29

4.6.3 Example – Short Circuit / Fault Analysis for Transmission System 32

4.6.4 Example – Short Circuit / Fault Analysis for Industrial System 34

4.6.5 Example – Short Circuit / Fault Analysis for Renewable Energy System 37

4.6.6 Example – Grounding Grid System for Industrial System 40

Chapter 5 Motor Starting

5.1.1 Methods 2

5.1.2 Motor Rated Power 4

5.1.3 Torque – Speed 4

5.1.4 Motor Connected Load Types 5

5.1.5 Motor Locked Rotor 6

5.1.6 Motor Starting Methods 7

5.1.7 Motor Inertia 9

5.1.8 Motor Nameplate 10

5.1.9 Electric Motor Standard Comparison 11

5.1.10 Motor & System Frequency Impact 12

5.2 Analysis Objectives 13

5.2.1 Voltage Drop 13

5.3 Methodology & Standards 14

5.3.1 Static Motor Starting or Non-Dynamic Motor Model 15

5.3.2 Dynamic Motor Starting 20

5.3.3 Control of Motor Characteristic Curves 22

5.3.4 Transient Stability or Full Network Dynamics 22

5.4 Required Data 24

5.4.1 Additional Data for Starting Motors 24

5.5 Illustrative Examples 25

5.5.1 Static Motor Starting with Load Change 25

5.5.2 Dynamic Motor Starting 26

5.5.3 Motor Starting with VFD 29

5.5.4 Synchronous Motor Starting 31

5.5.5 Example – Motor Starting Study for Industrial System 35

5.6 Motor Starting Plots and Results 38

5.7 Motor Starting Alerts 39

Chapter 6 Harmonics

6.1 Introduction 2

6.2 Analysis Objectives 4

6.3 Required Data 7

6.3.1 Harmonic Spectrum Data 7

6.3.2 Effect of kVA and Source Impedance 8

6.4 Harmonic Load Flow & Frequency Scan 9

6.5 Illustrative Examples 10

6.5.1 Example – Harmonic Study for Industrial System 10

6.5.2 Effect of Capacitors on System Resonance & Distortion 16

6.5.3 Harmonic Mitigation – Passive Filters 19

6.5.4 Harmonic Cancellation Using Transformer Phase Shift 21

Chapter 7 Transient Stability

7.1 Introduction 2

7.2 Analysis Objectives 3

7.3 Basic Concepts of Transient Stability 5

7.3.1 Stability Limits 7

7.4 Dynamic Models 7

7.4.1 Power Grid 8

7.4.2 Synchronous Machine 8

7.4.3 Induction Machine 16

7.4.4 Wind Turbine Generator 22

7.4.5 Inverter (PV Array Inverter) 32

7.4.6 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) 32

7.4.7 Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) 32

7.4.8 Dynamic Lumped Motor Load Model 32

7.4.9 Protection Relays 33

7.5 User-Defined Models (UDM) 34

7.6 Parameter Tuning 35

7.7 Data Collection and Preparation 41

7.8 Study Scenarios 43

7.9 Stability Improvement 47

7.10 System Simulation 49

7.10.1 Events 49

7.10.2 Results, Reports & Plots 50

7.11 Illustrative Examples 51

7.11.1 Determine Critical Fault Clearing Time (IEEE 9-Bus System) 51

7.11.2 Stability Analysis of Industrial Facility 57

7.11.3 Example – Transient Stability Analysis for Transmission System 62

7.11.4 Example – Transient Stability Analysis for Industrial System 68

Chapter 8 Reliability Assessment

8.1 Introduction 2

8.2 Analysis Objectives 2

8.3 Problem Formulation 3

8.3.1 Generation Reliability Assessment 3

8.3.2 Transmission Reliability Assessment 3

8.3.3 Distribution Reliability Assessment 4

8.4 Required Data 4

8.5 Illustrative Examples 5

8.5.1 Simple Radial System 5

8.5.2 Single & Double Contingency 7

8.5.3 Reliability index calculation 11

8.5.4 Example – Reliability assessment for Transmission System 13

Chapter 9 Protective Device Coordination

9.1 Introduction 2

9.1.1 Study Criteria 3

9.1.2 Study Objectives 3

9.1.3 Low Voltage Circuit Breakers (LVCB) 4

9.2 Relays 7

9.2.1 Electromechanical relays 7

9.2.2 Static relays 7

9.2.3 Digital Relays 7

9.2.4 Numerical Relays 8

9.2.5 Relay Types / Functions 8

9.3 Methodology 11

9.3.1 Discrimination by Time 12

9.3.2 Discrimination by Current 12

9.3.3 Discrimination by Current & Time 13

9.3.4 Scale Selection 16

9.3.5 Log-Log Plot 16

9.4 Required Data 17

9.5 Principle of Protection 18

9.6 Principle of Selectivity / Coordination 19

9.6.1 Selectivity Time Margins 23

9.7 Art of Protection and Coordination > 600 V 23

9.7.1 Bus Relays 24

9.7.2 Feeder Relays 24

9.7.3 Induction Motors 24

9.7.4 Motor Protection 25

9.7.5 Cables 25

9.7.6 Capacitors 26

9.7.7 Power Transformers 26

9.8 Illustrative Examples 31

9.8.1 Basic Operation & Phase Protection 31

9.8.2 Illustrative Example – Ground Fault Protection 50

9.8.3 Evaluating Phase & Ground settings using Sequence of Operation 53

9.8.4 Illustrative Example – Star Auto-Evaluation 56

9.9 References 57

Appendix