Power System Dynamics: Stability and Control (Hardcover, 3)

· 제목 : Power System Dynamics: Stability and Control (Hardcover, 3) 
· 분류 : 외국도서 > 기술공학 > 기술공학 > 전력자원 > 일반
· ISBN : 9781119526346
· 쪽수 : 888쪽
· 출판일 : 2020-06-08

About the Authors

List of Symbols

Part I Introduction to Power Systems

1 Introduction

1.1 Stability and Control of a Dynamic System

1.2 Classification of Power System Dynamics

1.3 Two Pairs of Important Quantities: Reactive Power/Voltage and Real Power/Frequency

1.4 Stability of a Power System

1.5 Security of a Power System

2 Power System Components

2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Reliability of Supply

2.1.2 Supplying Electrical Energy of Good Quality

2.1.3 Economic Generation and Transmission

2.1.4 Environmental Issues

2.2 Structure of the Electrical Power System

2.2.1 Generation

2.2.2 Transmission

2.2.3 Distribution

2.2.4 Demand

2.3 Generating Units

2.3.1 Synchronous Generators

2.3.2 Exciters and Automatic Voltage Regulators

2.3.3 Turbines and their Governing Systems

2.4 Substations

2.5 Transmission and Distribution Network

2.5.1 Overhead Lines and Underground Cables

2.5.2 Transformers

2.5.3 Shunt and Series Elements

2.5.4 FACTS Devices

2.6 Protection

2.6.1 Protection of Transmission Lines

2.6.2 Protection of Transformers

2.6.3 Protection of Busbars

2.6.4 Protection of Generating Units

2.7 Wide Area Measurement Systems

3 The Power System in the Steady State

3.1 Transmission Lines

3.1.1 Line Equations and the -Equivalent Circuit

3.1.2 Performance of the Transmission Line

3.1.3 Underground Cables

3.2 Transformers

3.2.1 Equivalent Circuit

3.2.2 Off-Nominal Transformation Ratio

3.3 Synchronous Generators

3.3.1 Round-Rotor Machines

3.3.2 Salient-Pole Machines

3.3.3 Synchronous Generator as a Power Source

3.3.4 Reactive Power Capability Curve of a Round-Rotor Generator

3.3.5 Voltage–Reactive Power Capability Characteristic V(Q)

3.3.6 Including the Equivalent Network Impedance

3.4 Power System Loads

3.4.1 Lighting and Heating

3.4.2 Induction Motors

3.4.3 Static Characteristics of the Load

3.4.4 Load Models

3.5 Network Equations

3.6 Power Flows in Transmission Networks

3.6.1. Input data

3.6.2 Calculation of Power Flows

3.6.1 Control of Power Flows

Part II Introduction to Power System Dynamics

4 Electromagnetic Phenomena

4.1 Fundamentals

4.1.1 Swing Equation

4.1.2 Low of Constant Flux

4.2 Three-Phase Short Circuit on a Synchronous Generator

4.2.1 Three-Phase Short Circuit with the Generator on No Load and Winding Resistance

4.2.2 Including the Effect of Winding Resistance

4.2.3 Armature Flux Paths and the Equivalent Reactances

4.2.4 Generator Electromotive Forces and Equivalent Circuits

4.2.5 Short-Circuit Currents with the Generator Initially on No Load

4.2.6 Short-Circuit Currents in the Loaded Generator

4.2.7 Subtransient Torque

4.3 Phase-to-Phase Short Circuit

4.3.1 Short-Circuit Current and Flux with Winding Resistance Neglected

4.3.2 Influence of the Subtransient Saliency

4.3.3 Positive- and Negative-Sequence Reactances

4.3.4 Influence of Winding Resistance

4.3.5 Subtransient Torque

4.4 Switching operations

4.4.1 Synchronization

4.4.2 Short circuit in the network and its clearing

4.4.3 Torsional oscillations in the drive shaft

4.4.4 Switching operations in transmission network

4.4.5 Synchro-check devices

4.5 Subsynchronous resonance

5 Electromechanical Dynamics – Small Disturbances

5.1 Simplified swing equation

5.2 Damping Power

5.3 Equilibrium Points

5.4 Steady-State Stability of Unregulated System

5.4.1 Pull-Out Power

5.4.2 Transient Power-Angle Characteristics

5.4.3 Rotor Swings and Equal Area Criterion

5.4.4 Effect of Damper Windings

5.4.5 Effect of Rotor Flux Linkage Variation

5.4.6 Analysis of Rotor Swings Around the Equilibrium Point

5.4.7 Mechanical Analogues of the Generator–Infinite Busbar System

5.5 Steady-State Stability of the Regulated System

5.5.1 Steady-State Power-Angle Characteristic of Regulated Generator

5.5.2 Transient Power-Angle Characteristic of the Regulated Generator

5.5.3 Effect of Rotor Flux Linkage Variation

5.5.4 Effect of AVR Action on the Damper Windings

5.5.5 Compensating the Negative Damping Components

6 Electromechanical Dynamics - Large Disturbances

6.1 Transient Stability

6.1.1 Fault Cleared Without a Change in the Equivalent Network Impedance

6.1.2 Short-Circuit Cleared with/without Auto-Reclosing

6.1.3 Power Swings

6.1.4 Effect of Flux Decrement

6.1.5 Effect of the AVR

6.1.6 Simplified angle stability criteria

6.2 Swings in Multi-Machine Systems

6.3 Direct Method for Stability Assessment

6.3.1 Mathematical Background

6.3.2 Energy-Type Lyapunov Function

6.3.3 Transient Stability Area

6.3.4 Equal Area Criterion

6.3.5 Lyapunov Direct Method for a Multi-Machine System

6.4 Synchronization

6.5 Asynchronous Operation and Resynchronization

6.5.1 Transition to Asynchronous Operation

6.5.2 Asynchronous Operation

6.5.3 Possibility of Resynchronization

6.6 Out-of-Step Protection Systems

6.6.1 Concepts of out-of-step protection system

6.6.2 Impedance Loci During Power Swings

6.6.3 Pole-Slip Protection of Synchronous Generator

6.6.4 Power Swing Blocking of distance protection

6.6.5 Protection sensitive to power swings

6.6.5 Out-of-Step Tripping in a Network

6.6.6 Example of a Blackout

6.7 Torsional Oscillations in the Drive Shaft

6.7.1 The Torsional Natural Frequencies of the Turbine–Generator Rotor

6.7.2 Effect of System Faults

6.7.4 Subsynchronous Resonance

7 Wind Power

7.1 Wind Turbines

7.2 Generator Systems

7.3 Induction Machine Equivalent Circuit

7.4 Induction Generator Coupled to the Grid

7.5 Induction Generators with Slightly Increased Speed Range via External Rotor Resistance

7.6 Induction Generators with Significantly Increased Speed Range: DFIGs

7.6.1 Operation with the Injected Voltage in Phase with the Rotor Current

7.6.2 Operation with the Injected Voltage out of Phase with the Rotor Current

7.6.3 The DFIG as a Synchronous Generator

7.6.4 Control Strategy for a DFIG

7.7 Fully Rated Converter Systems: Wide Speed Control

7.7.1 Machine-Side Inverter

7.7.2 Grid-Side Inverter

7.8 Peak Power Tracking of Variable Speed Wind Turbines

7.9 Connections of Wind Farms

7.10 Fault Behavior of Induction Generators

7.10.1 Fixed-Speed Induction Generators

7.10.2 Variable-Speed Induction Generators

7.11 Influence of Wind Generators on Power System Stability

8 Voltage Stability

8.1 Network Feasibility

8.1.1 Ideally Stiff Load

8.1.2 Influence of the Load Characteristics

8.2 Stability Criteria

8.2.1 The dQ/dV Criterion

8.2.2 The dE/dV Criterion

8.2.3 The dQG/dQL Criterion

8.3 Critical Load Demand and Voltage Collapse

8.3.1 Effects of Increasing Demand

8.3.2 Effect of Network Outages

8.3.3 Influence of the Shape of the Load Characteristics

8.3.4 Influence of the Voltage Control

8.4 Static Analysis

8.4.1 Simplified Voltage Stability Criterion

8.4.2 Voltage Stability and Load Flow

8.4.3 Voltage Stability Indices

8.5 Dynamic Analysis

8.5.1 The Dynamics of Voltage Collapse

8.5.2 Examples of Power System Blackouts

8.5.3 Computer Simulation of Voltage Collapse

8.6 Prevention of Voltage Collapse

8.7 Self-Excitation of a Generator Operating on a Capacitive Load

8.7.1 Parametric Resonance in RLC Circuits

8.7.2 Self-Excitation of a Generator with Open-Circuited Field Winding

8.7.3 Self-Excitation of a Generator with Closed Field Winding

8.7.4 Practical Possibility of Self-Excitation

9 Frequency Stability and Control

9.1 Automatic Generation Control

9.1.1 Generation Characteristic

9.1.2 Primary Control

9.1.3 Secondary Control

9.1.4 Tertiary Control

9.1.5 AGC as a Multi-Level Control

9.1.6 Defence Plan Against Frequency Instability

9.1.7 Quality Assessment of Frequency Control

9.2 Stage I - Rotor Swings in the Generators

9.3 Stage II - Frequency Drop

9.4 Stage III - Primary Control

9.4.1 The Importance of the Spinning Reserve

9.4.2 Frequency Collapse

9.4.3 Underfrequency Load Shedding

9.5 Stage IV - Secondary Control

9.5.1 Islanded Systems

9.5.2 Interconnected Systems and Tie-Line Oscillations

9.6 Simplified Simulation Models

9.6.1 Simplified Model of Islanded System

9.6.2 Simplified Model of Two Connected Subsystem 

9.7 FACTS Devices in Tie-Lines

9.7.1 Incremental Model of a Multi-Machine System

9.7.2 State-Variable Control Based on Lyapunov Method

9.7.3 Simulation Model of Three Connected Subsystem 

9.7.4 Example of Simulation Results

9.7.5 Coordination Between AGC and Series FACTS Devices in Tie-Lines

9.8. Static Analysis by Snapshots of Power Flow

10 Stability Enhancement

10.1 Excitation Control System

10.1.1 Transient Gain Reduction 

10.1.2 Power System Stabilizers

10.2 Turbine Control System

10.2.1 PSS Applied to The Turbine Governor

10.2.2 Fast Valving

10.3 Braking Resistors

10.4 Generator Tripping

10.4.1 Preventive Tripping

10.4.2 Restitutive Tripping

10.5 Shunt FACTS Devices

10.5.1 Power-Angle Characteristic

10.5.2 State-Variable Control

10.5.3 Control Based on Local Measurements

10.5.4 Examples of Controllable Shunt Elements

10.5.5 Generalization to Multi-Machine Systems

10.5.6 Example of Simulation Results

10.6 Series Compensators

10.6.1 State-Variable Control

10.6.2 Interpretation Using the Equal Area Criterion

10.6.3 Control Strategy Based on the Squared Current

10.6.4 Control Based on Other Local Measurements

10.6.5 Simulation Results

10.7 Unified Power Flow Controller

10.7.1 Power-Angle Characteristic

10.7.2 State-Variable Control

10.7.3 Control Based on Local Measurements

10.7.4 Examples of Simulation Results

10.8 HVDC links

10.8.1 Mathematical Model

10.8.2 State Variable Stabilizing Control

10.8.3 Control Based on Local Measurements

Part III Advanced Topics in Power System Dynamics

11 Advanced Power System Modeling

11.1 Synchronous Generator

11.1.1 Assumptions

11.1.2 The Flux Linkage Equations in the Stator Reference Frame

11.1.3 The Flux Linkage Equations in the Rotor Reference Frame

11.1.4 Voltage Equations

11.1.5 Generator Reactances in Terms of Circuit Quantities

11.1.6 Synchronous Generator Equations

11.1.7 Synchronous Generator Models

11.1.8 Saturation Effects

11.2 Excitation Systems

11.2.1 Transducer and Comparator Model

11.2.2 Exciters and Regulators

11.2.3 Power System Stabilizer (PSS)

11.3 Turbines and Turbine Governors

11.3.1 Steam Turbines

11.3.2 Hydraulic Turbines

11.3.3 Gas-Steam Combined-Cycle Power Plants

11.4 Wind Turbines and Wind Power Plants

11.4.1 Wind Energy Systems

11.4.2 Turbine Rotor Model

11.4.3. Pitch Control System

11.4.4 Shaft and Gear System

11.4.5 Generator Model

11.5 Photovoltaic Power Plants

11.6 HVDC Links

11.6.1 HVDC Link Structure

11.6.2 Power Electronic Converter Models

11.6.3 Control of HVDC links

11.7 FACTS Devices

11.7.1 Shunt FACTS Devices

11.7.2 Series FACTS Devices

11.8 Dynamic Load Models

12 Steady-State Stability of Multi-Machine System

12.1 Mathematical Background

12.1.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

12.1.2 Diagonalization of a Square Real Matrix

12.1.3 Solution of Matrix Differential Equations

12.1.4 Modal and Sensitivity Analysis

12.1.5 Modal Form of the State Equation with Inputs

12.1.6 Nonlinear System

12.2 Steady-State Stability of Unregulated System

12.2.1 State-Space Equation

12.2.2 Simplified Steady-State Stability Conditions

12.2.3 Including the Voltage Characteristics of the Loads

12.2.4 Transfer Capability of the Network

12.3 Steady-State Stability of the Regulated System

12.3.1 Generator and Network

12.3.2 Including Excitation System Model and Voltage Control

12.3.3 Linear State Equation of the System

12.3.4 Examples

13 Power System Dynamic Simulation

13.1 Numerical Integration Methods

13.2 The Partitioned Solution

13.2.1 Partial Matrix Inversion

13.2.2 Matrix Factorization

13.2.3 Newton’s Method

13.2.4 Ways of Avoiding Iterations and Multiple Network Solutions

13.3 The Simultaneous Solution Methods

13.4 Comparison Between the Methods

13.5 Modeling of Unbalanced Faults

13.6 Evaluation of Power System Dynamic Response

14 Stability Studies in Power System Planning

14.1 Purpose and Kinds of Analyses

14.1.1 Static Analyses

14.1.2 Dynamic Analyses

14.2 Planning Criteria

14.2.1 Contingency Events and Initial Conditions

14.2.2 Allowed constraints in System Operation

14.2.3 Performance Standard

14.2.4. Examples

14.3 Automation of Analyses and Reporting

15 Optimization of control system parameters

15.1 Grid code requirements

15.2 Optimization methods

15.3 Linear regulators

15.3.1 Linear regulators design

15.3.2 Voltage regulators

15.3.3 Power system stabilizers

15.4 Optimal regulators LQG, LQR, LQI

15.5 Robust regulators H2, H∞

15.6 Nonlinear regulators

15.7 Adaptive regulators

15.8 Real regulators and field test

16 Wide-Area Monitoring and Control

16.1 Wide Area Measurement Systems

16.1.1 Phasors

16.1.2 Structure of the WAMS

16.2 Examples of WAMS Applications

16.2.1 Evaluation of Power System Operation

16.2.2 Detection of Power System Islanding

16.2.3 Stability Monitoring and Instability Prediction

16.2.4 Damping of Electromechanical Oscillations

17 Impact of Renewable Energy Sources on Power System Dynamics

17.1 Renewable Energy Sources

17.1.1 Wind turbine generator systems

17.1.2 Photovoltaic power plants

17.2 Inertia in the Electric Power System

17.2.1 Variability of the power system inertia

17.2.2 Impact of inertia constant on system stability

17.3 Virtual Inertia

17.3.1 The idea of a virtual inertia system

17.3.2 The impact of virtual inertia on system stability

17.3.3 Virtual inertia and the stability of connected systems

18 Power System Model Reduction - Equivalents

18.1 Types of Equivalents

18.2 Network Transformation

18.2.1 Elimination of Nodes

18.2.2 Aggregation of Nodes Using Dimo’s Method

18.2.3 Aggregation of Nodes Using Zhukov’s Method

18.2.4 Coherency

18.3 Aggregation of Generating Units

18.4 Equivalent Model of External Subsystem

18.5 Coherency Recognition

18.6 Properties of Coherency-Based Equivalents

18.6.1 Electrical Interpretation of Zhukov’s Aggregation

18.6.2 Incremental Equivalent Model

18.6.3 Modal Interpretation of Exact Coherency

18.6.4 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of the Equivalent Model

18.6.5 Equilibrium Points of the Equivalent Model

Appendix

A.1 Per-unit System

A.1.1 Stator base quantities

A.1.2 Power invariance

A.1.3 Rotor base quantities

A.1.4 Power system base quantities

A.1.5 Transformers

A.2 Partial Inversion

A.3 Linear Ordinary Differential Equations

A.3.1 Fundamental System of Solutions

A.3.2 Real and Distinct Roots

A.3.3 Repeated Real Roots

A.3.4 Complex and Distinct Roots

A.3.5 Repeated Complex Roots

A.3.6 First-Order Complex Differential Equation

A.4 Prony Analysis

A.5 Limiters and Symbols in Block Diagrams

References

Index