Principles of Physical Metallurgy (Paperback, 2, Second Edition)

Chapter 1: Solid State Chemistry• Crystallography • Unit Cell • Atomic Radius • Effective Number of Atoms • Atomic Packing Factor • Density of a Cubic Crystal • Fundamental Laws of Crystallography • Law of constancy of interfacial angle • Law of rationality of indices • Characteristics of Miller indices • Law of symmetry • Miller Indices and Interplanar Spacing • Interplanar spacing • Miller indices for HCP crystals • Bragg’s Law

Chapter 2: Crystal Defects or Imperfections• Point Imperfections • Imperfection • Schottky defect • Frenkel defect • Non-stoichiometric defects • Metal excess defects • Metal deficiency defect • Impurity defects • Line Imperfections • Edge dislocation • Screw dislocation • Surface Imperfections • Driving Force for Extended Dislocation • Strain Hardening and tPN • Peierls - Nabarro stress (tPN) • Critically Resolved Shear Stress • Dislocation Generator: The Frank-Read Source • Cross-Slip • Slip Bands and Invariant Burgers Vector • Deformation or Mechanical Twinning

Chapter 3: Chemical Bonding • Atom and Molecule • Atomic Spectrum • Filling up of Atomic Orbitals by Electrons • Matter Waves and Schrödinger Wave Equation • Uncertainty Principle from Schrödinger Wave Equation • Validity of Neil Böhr’s Theory • Concept of Molecular Orbital • Characteristic Features of MO Theory • Characteristic Features of Valence Bond (VB) Theory • Periodic Table • Chemical Bond • Ionic bond • Covalent bond • Coordinate or dative bond • Hydrogen bond • Bond due to intermolecular forces (van der Waals bond) • Metallic bond

Chapter 4: Diffusion • Definition • Fick’s First Law • Kirkendall Effect • Fick’s Second Law • Applications of Fick’s Law • Growth of oxide layers • Carburizing of steel • Mechanisms of Diffusion • Volume Diffusion • Grain boundary Diffusion • Surface Diffusion • Coring • Factors Influencing Diffusion • Temperature • Concentration • Crystal structure • Impurities • Grain size • Interstitial Diffusion • Diffusion Process in Ionic Crystals

Chapter 5: Magnetism • Definitions • Magnetic flux and dipoles • Flux density • Field intensity • Permeability • Intensity of magnetization • Susceptibility • Böhr magneton • Classification of Magnetic Materials • Diamagnetism • Characteristic features • Theory • Paramagnetism • Characteristic features • Theory • Limitations of Curie’s law • Weiss modification • Ferromagnetism • Characteristic features • Origin of ferromagnetism • Electronic theory • Domain wall theory • Magnetostatic energy • Magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy • Magnetostrictive energy • Anti-ferromagnetism • Characteristic features • Classification of Ferromagnetic Materials • Hysteresis loss • Soft magnetic materials • Beneficial Effects of addition of silicon to iron • Adverse Effects of excess addition of silicon to iron • Alloys • Hard magnetic materials • Eddy Current Loss • Iron Loss • Factors Influencing iron loss and permeability • Ferrimagnetism • Characteristic features • Magnetic Glasses • Probable composition • Preparation • Properties

Chapter 6: Superconductors • Superconductors • Characteristic Features of Superconductivity • Transition temperature • Magnetic properties and Meissner Effect • Types of superconductors • Critical current • London equations and penetration depth • Isotopic Effect • Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer Theory • Energy Gap and Coherence Length • Fluxoid or Flux Momentum • Josephson Effect • Specific Heat • Thermal Conductivity • High Temperature Superconductors • Applications

Chapter 7: Conductors • Introduction to Free Electron Theory • Postulates of free electron theory • Electrical conductivity • Drift velocity • Mobility • Conductivity • Average velocity • Average drift velocity and relaxation time • Molar specific heat • Thermal conductivity • Drawbacks of free electron theory • The Quantum Concept of Free Electron Theory • Postulates • Fermi energy • Calculation of Fermi energy • Mean energy • Fermi velocity • Fermi mean free path • Fermi temperature • Carrier concentration at temperature other than K • Contribution of electrons to the Specific heat of metals • Merits and limitations of Sommerfeld theory • Band Theory of Solids • Potential well and potential barrier • Characteristic features • Brillouin zones • Conclusions • Variation of Electrical Resistivity Under Mechanical Stress • Characteristics of an Ideal Conductor • High Resistivity Materials • Thermistors • Mattheson’s Rule • Fuse • Introduction • Fuse materials • Types of fuses • Fusing characteristics • Carbon Brushes • Introduction • Preparation of carbon brushes • Types of carbon brushes • Properties of graphite brushes • Applications of carbon brushes • Electrical Contact Materials • Introduction • Classification

Chapter 8: Semiconductors • Introduction • Semiconductor elements • Conduction Mechanism in an Intrinsic Semiconductor • Drift velocity • Mobility • Law of mass action • Carrier Concentration in Valence Band and Conduction Band • Electron concentration in the conduction band • Positive hole concentration in the valence band • Conduction Mechanism in an Extrinsic Semiconductor • Charge Neutrality Equation • Density of Electrons in the Conduction Band of an n-type Semiconductor • Density of Holes in the Valence Band of a p-type Semiconductor • Effect of Temperature on Conductivity of an Intrinsic Semiconductor • Variation of Conductivity with Temperature in an Extrinsic Semiconductor • Characteristic Features of an Intrinsic Semiconductor • Band Gap in Semiconductors • Compound Semiconductors • Hall Effect

Chapter 9: Dielectrics • Introduction • Gauss’ theorem • Flux density • Parallel Plate Condenser • Polarization Vector • Polarizability • Types of Polarization • Electronic polarization • Molecular or ionic polarization • Orientation polarization • Space charge polarization • Clasius - Mosotti Relation • Effect of Frequency on Polarization • Dielectric Loss • Dielectric Strength • Intrinsic breakdown • Thermal breakdown • Discharge breakdown • Electrochemical breakdown • Defects breakdown • Active Dielectrics • Ferroelectrics • Anti-ferroelectrics • Piezoelectrics • Pyroelectrics • Insulators • Solid insulators • Liquid insulators • Gaseous insulators • Resistivity of an insulator • Insulation resistance

Chapter 10: Phase Equilibrium • Phase Rule • Single Component System • Water system • Carbon-di-oxide system • Two Component Liquid - Vapor System • Homogeneous mixture • Azeotropic mixture • Binary Phase Diagram for Solid Solutions • Solid solution • Completely miscible solid solutions • Metals miscible in liquid phase but immiscible in solid phase • Metals miscible in liquid phase but only partially miscible in solid phase • Binary solid solutions having peritectic point • Compound forming alloys • Other eutectic systems • Aluminium - silica system • Lead - magnesium system • Solid State Reactions • Precipitation reaction • Ternary Systems • Iron - Carbon Diagram • Allotropy • Composition of Fe/C alloy • Ferrite solubility curve • Cementite solubility curve • Eutectoid mixture and pearlite • Ledeburite • Hypoeutectoid steel • Hypereutectoid steel • Heating and cooling of steel • Change in grain size during cooling/heating • Critical temperature diagram • Effect of impurities on Fe/C alloy • Iron - carbon alloys • Ingot iron • Wrought iron • Steels • Cast iron

Chapter 11: Phase Transformations • Transformation of Austenite to Pearlite • Nucleation and grain growth • Effect of time and temperature on pearlite transformation • Transformation of Austenite to Bainite • Transformation of Austenite to Martensite • Martensitic transformation reaction • Dimensional change during martensitic reaction • Hardness of martensite • Stabilization • Reversibility of the martensitic transformation • Factors influencing Ms and Mf temperatures in steel • Theoretical and Commercial (Practical) Cooling Transformations • Characteristic features of CCT diagram

Chapter 12: Heat Treatment • Austenitizing • Rapid Cooling or Quenching • Quenching Process • Quenching Media • Water quenching medium • Oil quenching medium • Air quenching medium • Molten salt bath • Polymer quenchants • Residual Stress • Hardenability • Factors Influencing Hardenability • Effect of austenite grain size on hardenability • Influence of alloying elements • Influence of carbon on hardenability • Effect of varying hardening temperature • Defects in Steel Objects • Warping and cracking • Soft skin or soft surface • Soft spots • Shallow hardening of carbon steel • Age Hardening • Hardening without solid state reaction • Hardening through precipitation reaction • Nucleation of precipitates • Theory • Applications • Order hardening • Tempering • Effect of tempering on hardness • Effect of tempering on ductility • Cold tempering or Sub-zero treatment • Benefits of sub-zero treatment of steel • Disadvantage of sub-zero treatment of steel • Applications • Step Quenching • Austempering • Martempering • Equilibrium Heat Treatment • Normalizing • Annealing and Spheroidizing • Other Heat Treatment Processes • Solution heat treatment • Inter-critical annealing • Heat-Treating Furnaces • Liquid heating baths

Chapter 13: Alloys • Alloy Steel • Functions of Alloying Elements • Different Types of Steel • Magnetic steel • High strength low alloy steel • Austenitic stainless steel • Composition • Properties • Semi-austenitic steel • Composition • Ferritic stainless steel • Composition • Martensitic stainless steel • Manganese steel • Tungsten steel • Dual phase steel • High Temperature Alloys • High Speed Steel (HSS) • Properties • Applications • Ni-base alloys • Co-base alloys • Cermets • Brazing Alloys • Heating methods • Composition • Advantages of brazing • Disadvantages • Soldering Alloys • Soldering fluxes • Bearing Alloys • Composition of different bearing alloys • Titanium Alloys • Shape Memory Alloys

Chapter 14: Surface Treatment • Introduction • Methods of Surface Treatment • Plating • Oxidation • Hard facing • Induction flame heating • Advantages of induction flame hardening • Disadvantages of induction flame hardening • Case hardening by carburizing • Gas carburizing process • Post-carburizing heat treatment • Carburizing in furnace • Characteristics of carburizing process • Liquid bath carburizing and hardening • Characteristics of cyaniding process • Pack carburizing • Nitriding • Gas nitriding • Bright nitriding • Pack nitriding • Ion nitriding • Case • Advantages of nitrided case • Disadvantages of nitrided case • Principal reasons for nitriding • Nitridable Steels

Chapter 15: Powder Metallurgy • Metallic Powder • Mechanical method • Atomization process • Vapor condensation process • Oxide reduction process • Chemical precipitation process • Electrolytic deposition process • Characteristics of Metal Powders • Chemical composition • Structure of powder • Flow characteristics • Apparent density/bulk density • Particle size • Compaction of Metal Powders • Hot pressing technique • Cold pressing technique • Processing Techniques • Welding of powders • Molding of metal powder • Sintering • Temperature and time • Stages of sintering • Driving force • Solid phase sintering • Liquid phase sintering • Sintering furnace • Post-Sintering Operations • Shrinkage • Applications • Advantages of Powder Metallurgy • Limitations of Powder Metallurgy

Chapter 16: Recrystallization• Cold Working • Cold Annealing or Process Annealing • Recovery • Primary recrystallization • Recrystallization temperature • Factors influencing recrystallization temperature • Driving force • Grain growth • Factors influencing grain growth • Secondary recrystallization (abnormal grain growth)

Chapter 17: Solidification • Kinetics of Nucleation • Radius of nucleus • Critical radius • Principle of Nucleation • Homogeneous nucleation • Heterogeneous nucleation • Crystal Growth During Casting • Chill zone • Columnar zone • Central zone • Supercooling region • Temperature inversion

Chapter 18: Fracture and Creep• Definition • Classification • Cleavage fracture • Shear fracture • Brittle fracture • Ductile failure • Engineering Stress-Strain and True Stress-Strain • True stress and true strain • Engineering stress and engineering strain • Relationship between true parameters and engineering parameters • Flow curve • Hardness of Metals • Brinell Hardness Number • Vickers Hardness Number • Rockwell Hardness Number • Brittleness • Mechanism of Crack Formation • Zone model • Cottrell’s model • Intercrystalline and transcrystalline fractures • Resilience and toughness • Factors Influencing Brittle and Ductile Fractures • Griffith Theory • Characteristic features • Ductile-Brittle Transition Temperature • Factors influencing ductile-brittle transition temperature • Protection of Surface from Crack • Fracture Resistance • Plastic Deformation • Hot working • Consequences of hot working • Creep • Factors influencing creep • Creep-resistant materials • Fatigue Failure • Mechanism of fatigue failure • Characteristic features • Factors Influencing fatigue failure

Chapter 19: Corrosion • Definition • Classification • Chemical or Dry Corrosion • Oxidation corrosion • Corrosion by other gases • Liquid metal corrosion • Electrochemical Corrosion • Characteristic features • Polarization of electrodes • Rusting of iron • Other Forms of Corrosion • Factors Influencing Corrosion • Nature of the metal • Nature of the corroding environment • Measures to Prevent Corrosion • Modification of the environment • Modification of the composition of the alloy • Cathodic protection • Inhibitors • Use of protective coatings • Metal coatings • Inorganic coatings • Organic coatings • Some Facts Explained

Chapter 20: Optical Properties• Luminescence • Photoluminescence • Cathode Ray Tube • Television/computer monitor • Oscilloscope tubes • Light Emitting Diode • Luminous efficiency • Failure of LED • Flashing LED • Advantages of an LED • Disadvantages of an LED • Applications • Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) • Smectic phase • Nematic phase • Cholesteric phase • Principle of LCD display • Advantages of an LCD • Disadvantages of an LCD • Laser • Principle of laser action • Applications

Chapter 21: Non-Conventional Resources• Magneto Hydro Dynamic Power Generator • Principle • MHD systems • Open cycle MHD system • Closed cycle MHD system • Advantages of liquid metal system • Limitations of liquid metal system • MHD circuit and power equation • Advantages of an MHD power generator • Thermoelectrical Power Converter • Thermionic Converter • Limitations • Fuel Cell • Working principle • Types of fuel cells • Acid and alkaline fuel cell • Molten carbonate fuel cell • Direct methanol fuel cell • Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) • Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) • Zinc-air fuel cell • Regenerative fuel cell • EMF of a fuel cell • Choice of fuel • Advantages of fuel cells • Limitations of fuel cells • Applications of fuel cells • Solar Cell • Photodiode • Photovoltaic cell or solar cell • Theory • Types of solar cells • Advantages of solar cells • Limitations of solar cells • Uses of solar cells

Chapter 22: Composites and Ceramics• Composites • Definition and characteristics • Classification of composites • Advantages and disadvantages of composites • Advantages • Disadvantages • Mechanical properties • Advanced Composite Materials (ACM) • Applications • Preparation • Limitations • Solved problems • Ceramics • Definition and characteristics • Classification • On the basis of application • On the basis of crystal structure • On the basis of chemical composition • Properties • Advantages • Disadvantages • Applications • Refractory Materials • Definition of refractories • Classification of refractory materials • Chemical composition of refractories • Applications • Role of refractory • Refractory requirements • Some properties of refractory materials • Appendix I • Appendix II • Periodic Table and Chemical Symbols • Bibliography • Index