2020 전공영어 최진호 영어학 Intermediate

Chapter 01 Phonology
01 Consonants ···· 27
1. The Vocal Tract ····· 28
2. Place of Articulation ········· 29
⑴ Bilabial ····· 29
⑵ Labiodental ········· 30
⑶ Interdental ··········· 30
⑷ Alveolar ··· 30
⑸ Palatal ······ 31
⑹ Velar ········· 31
⑺ Glottal ······ 31
3. Manner of Articulation ····· 32
⑴ Stops ········· 32
⑵ Fricatives · 33
⑶ Affricates · 33
⑷ Nasals ······· 33
⑸ Liquids ····· 33
⑹ Glides (= Semi-vowels) ··34
02 Vowels ··· 34
1. Vowels ··········· 34
⑴ Tongue Height ··· 34
⑵ Tongue Advancement ·· 35
⑶ Tenseness 35
⑷ Lip Rounding ····· 35
2. Diphthongs ··· 36
03 Distinctive Features ······· 38
1. Distinctive Features 1 ······ 38
⑴ Syllabic (syl) ······ 38
⑵ Sonorant (son) ··· 38
⑶ Consonantal (cons) ······· 38
⑷ Continuant (cont) ·········· 38
⑸ Strident (str) ······· 39
⑹ Delayed Release (d.r.) · 39
⑺ Nasal (nas) ·········· 39
⑻ Lateral (lat) ········· 40
⑼ Anterior (ant) ····· 40
⑽ Coronal (cor) ····· 40
⑾ Dorsal ······· 41
2. Distinctive Features 2 ······ 44
⑴ Distinctive Features: ···· 44
Major classes [Sonorant], [Continuant] and [Consonantal]
04 Phonemes vs. Allophones ···· 45
1. Finding phonemes and allophones [Distribution of Sounds] ··· 48
⑴ Minimal pairs and contrastive distribution ··········· 48
⑵ Complementary Distribution ·· 50
⑶ Free variation ····· 51
2. Diacritical Marks ···· 52
05 Consonant Allophones · 52
1. Aspiration ····· 52
2. Glottal Stop Replacement [Glottalization] ··· 55
3. Velar Nasal /ŋ/ ········ 56
4. Clear l and Dark l ·· 57
⑴ Velarized /l/ = dark [?] ········· 58
5. Syllabic Consonants ········ 60
⑴ Syllabic Nasals ·· 60
⑵ Syllabic Liquids 60
06 Syllables ··········· 62
1. The Syllable Structure ····· 62
2. Sonority Sequencing Principle · 62
3. Syllabification ·········· 65
4. Phonotactics ········· 66
⑴ Onset constraints ··········· 66
5. Accidental and systematic gaps ········· 68
07 Stress ····· 69
1. Word Stress · 69
2. Suffixes & Stress ··· 70
⑴ Stress-bearing (attracting) suffixes ·· 70
⑵ Stress-neutral suffixes ·· 71
⑶ Stress-shifting (fixing) suffixes ········ 72
3. Sentence Stress [Tonic Accent] 74
⑴ Content vs. Function Words · 74
⑵ Placement of main stress in sentences ····· 75
⑶ Contrastive stress ·········· 76
4. Emphatic Stress ···· 76
5. Stress Shift ·· 77
6. Foot ····· 78
7. Full Forms and Reduced Forms ········· 79
08 Intonation ········ 81
1. What is intonation? ··········· 81
2. Final intonation ······· 81
⑴ Rising-falling intonation ········· 81
⑵ Rising intonation ··········· 82
3. Non-final intonation ·········· 83
⑴ Rising-falling intonation ········· 83
⑵ Continuation rise ··········· 84
4. Tag questions ········· 85
09 Phonological Processes ········· 86
1. Assimilation · 86
⑴ Progressive assimilation ·········· 86
⑵ Regressive assimilation ··········· 87
⑶ Coalescent assimilation ··········· 90
⑷ Total assimilation [Gemination] ······· 91
2. Dissimilation 92
⑴ fricative dissimilation ·· 92
⑵ -al suffix · 92
3. Deletion ········· 93
⑴ Consonant Cluster Reduction (CCR) ········· 93
⑵ /t/-deletion in /nt/ sequence ·· 94
⑶ /g/-deletion ·········· 94
⑷ /b/-deletion ·········· 95
4. Insertion [Epenthesis] ······ 95
5. Metathesis ···· 96
6. Haplology ····· 96
7. Neutralization ·········· 97
⑴ Vowel Reduction [Schwa Rule] ······ 97
⑵ Flapping ··· 99
⑶ Glottalization ······ 100
10 Phonological Rules ········· 101
1. Format & Notation 101
⑴ Parenthesis Notation ···· 101
⑵ Brace Notation ·· 102
⑶ Alpha Notation ·· 102
2. Dentalization ··········· 102
3. Labiodentalization · 103
4. Devoicing ····· 104
5. Velarization ·· 104
6. Vowel Lengthening ··········· 106
7. Vowel Nasalization ··········· 107

Chapter 02 Morphology
01 Basic Concepts & Derivation ······· 112
1. Free and bound morphemes ···· 112
⑴ derivational morphemes vs. inflectional morphemes ···· 112
2. Content Words and Function Words · 113
3. Roots and Stems ·· 114
4. Allomorphs ··· 115
⑴ Plural Morpheme {-S} ··········· 115
⑵ Past Tense {-D} ··········· 116
5. The Hierarchical Structure of Derived Words ······· 116
02 Constraints on Derivation ···· 117
1. Accidental Gaps vs. Systematic Gaps ········· 117
2. -en suffix ······· 118
3. -al suffix ········· 119
4. Class 1 vs. Class 2 Suffixes ····· 120
5. un- prefix (semantic constraint) ·········· 122
03 Word-Formation Processes · 123
1. Compounds · 123
⑴ Ambiguity ··········· 125
⑵ Exocentric and Endocentric Compounds ·· 125
⑶ Stress in Compounds vs. Phrases ··· 126
2. Blends 127
3. Clipping ········· 127
4. Acronyms ····· 128
5. Initialisms [(Alphabetic) abbreviations] ········ 128
6. Conversion ·· 128
7. Back Formation ····· 129
8. Coinage ········· 130
9. Word from Names (Eponyms) · 130

Chapter 03 Syntax
01 Predicates, Arguments and Thematic Roles ······ 134
1. Predicates and arguments ········ 134
2. Thematic Roles ······ 134
[θ-roles, Thematic Relations, Semantic Roles]
⑴ Nonreferential it and there ··· 136
3. Selectional Restrictions ·· 136
02 X-Bar Theory ··········· 137
1. Heads, Complements and Specifiers ··········· 137
2. Adjuncts ········ 138
⑴ Adjuncts can be optional. ····· 139
⑵ Adjuncts can be stacked. ······· 139
⑶ Complements, not adjuncts, are closer to the Head ···· 139
3. Subcategorization · 142
4. Complements and Adjuncts ····· 143
⑴ Complements and Adjuncts in NPs ··········· 143
⑵ Complements and Adjuncts in VPs ··········· 146
⑶ Clausal Complements vs. Clausal Adjuncts ········ 147
03 Clauses · 149
1. Raising and Control Constructions ···· 149
2. Differences between Raising and Control Verbs · 152
⑴ Subject Raising and Control 152
⑵ Object Raising and Control ·· 155
3. Infinitival Complementation ······ 156
⑴ Believe Verbs: Subject-to-Object Raising · 157
⑵ Want Verbs ········ 159
⑶ Persuade Verbs: Object Control ····· 160
4. Complementizers that, for, whether, if ········· 162
5. Complementizers whether vs. if ········· 163
04 Ambiguity ········ 164
1. Syntactic Ambiguity ·········· 164
2. Lexical Ambiguity ·· 166
3. Lexico-Syntactic Ambiguity ······· 166
05 Constituency Tests ········ 169
1. Movement ···· 169
⑴ Topicalization (= Preposing) · 170
⑵ VP-Preposing ····· 170
⑶ Though-Movement ········ 171
⑴ Heavy-NP-Shift ·· 171
⑵ Extraposition from NP ··········· 172
2. Substitution ·· 172
⑴ Proform Substitution ···· 172
⑵ One-Substitution 173
⑶ Do so-Substitution ········ 175
3. Coordination 176
⑴ Ordinary Coordination 176
⑵ Right Node Raising ····· 176
4. Cleft and Pseudocleft Sentences ······· 177
5. (Adverb) Insertion · 177
6. The Constituent Response Test ········· 178
06 Syntactic Argumentation ······· 178
1. Phrasal Verbs vs. Prepositional Verbs ········ 178
⑴ Movement ··········· 179
⑵ Coordination ······· 179
⑶ Shared Constituent Coordination Test ······· 179
⑷ Sentence Fragment ······· 179
⑸ (VP-Adverb) Insertion · 180
⑹ Gapping [V-Deletion] ·· 180
⑺ Clefting ···· 180
⑻ Word Order ········ 181
⑼ Stress Pattern ····· 181
2. Binding Theory ······· 181
⑴ Anaphors (Reflexives & Reciprocals) ······· 182
⑵ Pronominals [(Personal) Pronouns] · 183
3. Case Theory ··········· 184
⑴ Case Filter and Adjacency Requirement ·· 184
⑵ NOMINATIVE and ACCUSATIVE case · 185
⑶ Adjectives and Nouns · 187

Chapter 04 Grammar
01 Determiners ·· 200
1. Determiners · 200
⑴ order restriction · 200
⑵ co-occurrence restriction ········· 200
2. Genitives ······ 201
⑴ Meanings of Genitives ··········· 201
⑵ Double Genitive 201
02 Adjectives ······· 202
1. Stative and Dynamic Adjectives ········· 202
2. Relative Clauses ··· 203
⑴ Punctuation ········· 204
⑵ Modification of a proper nouns ······ 204
⑶ Modification of any, every, no, etc. ·········· 204
⑷ That as relative pronoun ······· 204
⑸ Stacking ··· 204
⑹ Sentence modification · 205
3. Verbal Participles vs. Adjectival Participles ··········· 205
4. Unmarked and Marked Adjectives ····· 206
5. Attributive-Only Adjectives ········ 208
⑴ Adjectives of Degree ·· 208
⑵ Quantifying Adjectives ··········· 208
⑶ Adjectives of Time and Location ··· 209
⑷ Associative Adjectives 209
6. Predicative-Only Adjectives ······ 209
⑴ Adjectives Beginning with the Prefix A- 210
⑵ Adjective That Take Complements 210
⑶ Adjectives Referring to Medical Conditions or Health ··········· 210
03 Adverbials ······ 211
1. Subjuncts ····· 211
⑴ Viewpoint subjuncts ···· 211
⑵ Courtesy subjuncts ······· 211
⑶ Item subjuncts ··· 212
2. Disjuncts ······· 213
⑴ Style disjuncts ··· 213
⑵ Content disjuncts ·········· 214
04 Pronouns ········· 216
1. Reference ···· 216
05 Verb Complementation ··········· 217
1. That-Complements ··········· 217
2. Infinitival Complements ·· 217
⑴ Type 1 Complements: Persuade verbs ····· 217
⑵ Type 2 Complements: Want verbs · 218
⑶ Type 3 Complements: Believe verbs ········· 219
06 Tense and Aspect ·········· 221
1. Present Perfect vs. Simple Past ········· 221
⑴ Anteriority: definite or indefinite time ······ 221
⑵ Time Adjuncts and the Present Perfect Aspect · 222
⑶ Current Relevance ········ 223
2. Will vs. Be going to ··········· 223
3. The present tense in adverbial clauses ······· 225
⑴ will+R → the present tense · 225
⑵ will have pp → have pp ······ 225
4. Stative Progressives ········ 226
⑴ Giving statements more emotional strength and intensity ······ 226
⑵ Focusing on behavior as a change from the norm ······ 226
⑶ Focusing on evolving change ·········· 227
⑷ Hedging or softening a definitive opinion ·········· 227
5. Lexical Aspects of Verbs ⑴ ····· 228
⑴ States ········ 228
⑵ Activities · 228
⑶ Accomplishments ·········· 229
⑷ Achievements ····· 229
6 Lexical Aspects of Verbs ⑵ ······· 234
⑴ Aspectual Classes ········· 234
⑵ Diagnostic Tests for Lexical Aspects ········ 235
07 Passive Voice ········· 238
1. Semantic Constraints on Using the Passive ········· 238
2. Get Passives ··········· 239
3. Past Participles: Adjectives or Passive? ····· 240
4. Ergative Verbs [Unaccusative Verbs] ··········· 241
5. Middle Verbs ··········· 244
08 Negation ·········· 245
1. Clausal Negation ··· 245
⑴ Subject-Auxiliary Inversion ··· 246
2. Local Negation ······· 246
3. Syntactic features of clausal negation ········· 246
4. Nonassertive items [NPIs] ········· 248
5. Transferred Negation ······ 248
6. Scope of Negation 249
09 Pro-forms and Ellipsis · 250
1. Pro-forms ····· 250
⑴ One as pro-form ··········· 250
⑵ Do it, do that, do so · 251
⑶ So and not as pro-forms for object that-clause 252
2. Elliptical noun phrases ···· 252
10 Inversion ·········· 253
1. Subject-Auxiliary Inversion ······· 253
⑴ So+S+V vs. So+V+S ·· 253
⑵ Negative adverb +V+S ··········· 254
2. Subject-Verb Inversion ··· 254
11 Coordination · 255
1. Combinatory and Segregatory Coordination of NPs ······ 255
2. Indicators of segregatory meaning ···· 256
12 Multiword Verbs ··· 257
1. The Distinction between Prepositional Verbs and Phrasal Verbs ···· 257
2. Separable and Inseparable Phrasal Verbs 259
⑴ Separable phrasal verbs ·········· 259
⑵ Inseparable phrasal verbs ······· 259
⑶ Permanently separated phrasal verbs ········· 260
13 Dative Alternation ··········· 261
1. Subcategorization of English Verbs that Take Indirect Objects ········ 261
2. Semantics Governing Postverbal Position for Indirect Objects ········· 262
3. The Ambiguity of For Phrases · 262
4. Conditions on Indirect Object Alternation ··· 263
⑴ End-focus principle ······ 264
⑵ End-weight principle ··· 264
⑶ Verbs that Are Restricted to One Pattern ··········· 265
14 Constructions ·········· 266
1. Cleft and Pseudo-cleft Sentences ····· 266
⑴ Structure ·· 266
⑵ Clefting is a presupposition trigger ··········· 266
⑶ Ambiguity ··········· 266
2. Existential Sentences ······ 268
⑴ Indefinite NPs: ·· 268
preference for the existential over the non-existential
⑵ Displaced definite NPs ··········· 269
3. Tough Movement ·· 271
⑴ Object-to-Subject Raising (Tough Movement) ···· 271
⑵ Subject-to-Subject Raising ····· 272

Chapter 05 Semantics & Pragmatics
01 Referential Semantics · 277
1. Reference vs. Referent ·· 277
2. Anaphora vs. Cataphora 277
02 Lexical Relations ·· 278
1. Synonymy ···· 278
2. Antonymy ····· 278
⑴ Complementary [Binary] antonyms 278
⑵ Gradable antonyms ······ 278
⑶ Reverses ··· 279
⑷ Converses [Relational opposites] ····· 280
3. Hyponymy ···· 281
4. Different Meanings: Homonymy ········· 281
5. Related Meanings: Polysemy ·· 282
03 Sentential Relations ······ 282
1. Entailment ···· 282
2. Presupposition ······· 283
⑴ “Constancy Under Negation” Test · 284
3. Presupposition Triggers · 285
⑴ Wh-question ······· 285
⑵ Factive predicates vs. Non-factive predicates ····· 286
4. Factive Predicates vs. Non-factive Predicates ····· 286
⑴ Factive Predicates ········· 286
⑵ Non-factive Predicates 287
5. Implicative Verbs ··· 288
04 Deixis [Deictic Expressions] ·········· 289
1. Deictic vs. Non-deictic expressions ··· 290
⑴ Deixis vs. Anaphora ···· 290
05 Cooperative Principle & Conversational Maxims ········ 291
1. Maxim of Quantity · 291
2. Maxim of Quality ··· 292
3. Maxim of Relation · 292
4. Maxim of Manner ·· 292
5. Conversational Implicature ······· 293
⑴ Scalar Implicature (SI) ··········· 294
6. Hedges ·········· 296
06 Speech Acts 301
1. Performative Sentences · 301
2. Three Facets of Speech Acts ·· 302
3. Searle’s Typology of Illocutionary Acts ········ 303
⑴ Representatives ·· 303
⑵ Directives 303
⑶ Commissives ······ 304
⑷ Expressives ········· 304
⑸ Declarations ········ 304
4. Direct and Indirect Speech Acts ········· 305