Metal-Dielectric Interfaces in Gigascale Electronics: Thermal and Electrical Stability (Paperback)

Preface 1. Introduction 1.1 Metal-dielectric interfaces in IC chips 1.2 Materials choices 1.3 Thermal and electrical stability 2. Metal-Dielectric Diffusion Processes: Fundamentals 2.1 Thermal diffusion 2.2 Field-enhanced ion drift 2.3 Thermodynamics and chemical interactions 2.4 Summary 3. Experimental Techniques 3.1 Test structures 3.2 Electrical measurements 3.3 Elemental characterizations 3.4 Summary 4. Al-Dielectric Interfaces 4.1 Al-SiO 2 interface 4.2 Al/low- k dielectric interfaces 4.3 Chemical identification of Al-ion drift 4.4 SiO 2 as a dielectric barrier against Al-ion drift 4.5 Summary 5. Cu-Dielectric Interfaces 5.1 Stability of Cu-SiO 2 in an oxygen-free environment 5.2 Instability of Cu-SiO 2 in an oxygen-containing environment 5.3 Origin of Cu ions in SiO 2 5.4 Cu ion diffusivity inside SiO 2 5.5 Cu ions in porous low- k dielectrics 5.6 Pre-cleaning of Cu/low- k dielectrics 5.7 Cu atoms in porous low- k dielectrics 5.8 Dielectrics containing no oxygen 5.9 Summary 6. Barrier Metal-Dielectric Interfaces 6.1 Barrier metals on SiO 2 6.2 Barrier metals on low- k dielectrics 7. Self-Forming Barriers 7.1 General considerations 7.2 Cu(Al) self-forming barrier 7.3 Cu(Mg) self-forming barrier 7.4. Cu(Mn) self-forming barrier 7.5 Refractory metal self-forming barrier alloys 7.6 Summary 8. Kinetics of Ion Drift 8.1 Ion distribution simulations 8.2 Leakage current 8.3 C-V characteristics 8.4 Summary 9. Time-Dependent Dielectric Breakdown (TDDB) and Future Directions 9.1 Time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) 9.2 Dielectric pore-sealing 9.3 Resistance-switching memory 9.4 Summary