Rock Quality, Seismic Velocity, Attenuation and Anisotropy (Hardcover)

Preface
Introduction
The multi-disciplinary scope of seismic and rock quality
Revealing hidden rock conditions
Some basic principles of P, S and Q
Q and Q
Limitations of refraction seismic bring tomographic solutions
Nomenclature

PART I

1 Shallow seismic refraction, some basic theory, and the importance of rock type
1.1 The challenge of the near-surface in civil engineering
1.2 Some basic aspects concerning elastic body waves
1.2.1 Some sources of reduced elastic moduli
1.3 Relationships between Vp and Vs and their meaning in field work
1.4 Some advantages of shear waves
1.5 Basic estimation of rock-type and rock mass condition, from shallow seismic P-wave velocity
1.6 Some preliminary conversions from velocity to rock quality
1.7 Some limitations of the refraction seismic velocity interpretations
1.8 Assumed limitations may hide the strengths of the method
1.9 Seismic quality Q and apparent similarities to Q-rock

2 Environmental effects on velocity
2.1 Density and Vp
2.2 Porosity and Vp
2.3 Uniaxial compressive strength and Vp
2.4 Weathering and moisture content
2.5 Combined effects of moisture and pressure
2.6 Combined effects of moisture and low temperature

3 Effects of anisotropy on Vp
3.1 An introduction to velocity anisotropy caused by micro-cracks and jointing
3.2 Velocity anisotropy caused by fabric
3.3 Velocity anisotropy caused by rock joints
3.4 Velocity anisotropy caused by interbedding
3.5 Velocity anisotropy caused by faults

4 Cross-hole velocity and cross-hole velocity tomography
4.1 Cross-hole seismic for extrapolation of properties
4.2 Cross-hole seismic tomography in tunnelling
4.3 Cross-hole tomography in mining
4.4 Using tomography to monitor blasting effects
4.5 Alternative tomograms
4.6 Cross-hole or cross-well reflection measurement and time-lapse tomography

5 Relationships between rock quality, depth and seismic velocity
5.1 Some preliminary relationships between RQD, F, and Vp
5.2 Relationship between rock quality Q and Vp for hard jointed, near-surface rock masses
5.3 Effects of depth or stress on acoustic joint closure, velocities and amplitudes
5.3.1 Compression wave amplitude sensitivities to jointing
5.3.2 Stress and velocity coupling at the Gjøvik cavern site
5.4 Observations of effective stress effects on velocities
5.5 Integration of velocity, rock mass quality, porosity, stress, strength, deformability

6 Deformation moduli and seismic velocities
6.1 Correlating Vp with the ‘static’ moduli from deformation tests
6.2 Dynamic moduli and their relationship to static moduli
6.3 Some examples of the three dynamic moduli
6.4 Use of shear wave amplitude, frequency and petite-sismique
6.5 Correlation of deformation moduli with RMR and Q

7 Excavation disturbed zones and their seismic properties
7.1 Some effects of the free-surface on velocities and attenuation
7.2 EDZ phenomena around tunnels based on seismic monitoring
7.3 EDZ investigations in selected nuclear waste isolation studies
7.3.1 BWIP ? EDZ studies
7.3.2 URL ? EDZ studies
7.3.3 Aspo ? EDZ studies
7.3.4 Stripa ? effects of heating in the EDZ of a rock mass
7.4 Acoustic detection of stress effects around boreholes

8 Seismic measurements for tunnelling
8.1 Examples of seismic applications in tunnels
8.2 Examples of the use of seismic data in TBM excavations
8.3 Implications of inverse correlation between TBM advance rate and Vp
8.4 Use of probe drilling and seismic or sonic logging ahead of TBM tunnels
8.5 In-tunnel seismic measurements for looking ahead of the face
8.6 The possible consequences of insufficient seismic investigation due to depth limitations

9 Relationships between Vp, Lugeon value, permeability and grouting in jointed rock
9.1 Correlation between Vp and Lugeon value
9.2 Rock mass deformability and the Vp-L-Q correlation
9.3 Velocity and permeability measurements at in situ block tests
9.4 Detection of permeable zones using other geophysical methods
9.5 Monitoring the effects of grouting with seismic velocity
9.6 Interpreting grouting effects in relation to improved rock mass Q-parameters

PART II

10 Seismic quality Q and attenuation at many scales
10.1 Some basic aspects concerning attenuation and Qseismic
10.1.1 A preliminary discussion of the importance of strain levels
10.1.2 A preliminary look at the attenuating effect of cracks of larger scale
10.2 Attenuation and seismic Q from laboratory measurement
10.2.1 A more detailed discussion of friction as an attenuation mechanism
10.2.2 Effects of partial saturation on seismic Q
10.3 Effect of confining pressure on seismic Q
10.3.1 The four components of elastic attenuation
10.3.2 Effect on Qp and Qs of loading rock samples towards failure
10.4 The effects of single rock joints on seismic Q
10.5 Attenuation and seismic Q from near-surface measurements
10.5.1 Potential links to rock mass quality parameters in jointed rock
10.5.2 Effects of unconsolidated sediments on seismic Q
10.5.3 Influence of frequency variations on attenuation in jointed and bedded rock
10.6 Attenuation in the crust as interpreted from earthquake coda
10.6.1 Coda Qc from earthquake sources and its relation to rock quality Qc
10.6.2 Frequency dependence of coda Qc due to depth effects
10.6.3 Temporal changes of coda Qc prior to earthquakes
10.6.4 Possible separation of attenuation into scattering and intrinsic mechanisms
10.6.5 Changed coda Q during seismic events
10.6.6 Attenuation of damage due to acceleration
10.6.7 Do microcracks or tectonic structure cause attenuation
10.6.8 Down-the-well seismometers to minimise site effects
10.6.9 Rock mass quality parallels
10.7 Attenuation across continents
10.7.1 Plate tectonics, sub-duction zones and seismic Q
10.7.2 Young and old oceanic lithosphere
10.7.3 Lateral and depth variation of seismic Q and seismic velocity
10.7.4 Cross-continent Lg coda Q variations and their explanation
10.7.5 Effect of thick sediments on continental Lg coda
10.8 Some recent attenuation measurements in petroleum reservoir environments
10.8.1 Anomalous values of seismic Q in reservoirs due to major structures
10.8.2 Evidence for fracturing effects in reservoirs on seismic Q
10.8.3 Different methods of analysis give different seismic Q

11 Velocity structure of the earth’s crust
11.1 An introduction to crustal velocity structures
11.2 The continental velocity structures
11.3 The continental margin velocity structures
11.3.1 Explaining a velocity anomaly
11.4 The mid-Atlantic ridge velocity structures
11.4.1 A possible effective stress discrepancy in early testing
11.4.2 Smoother depth velocity models
11.4.3 Recognition of lower effective stress levels beneath the oceans
11.4.4 Direct observation of sub-ocean floor velocities
11.4.5 Sub-ocean floor attenuation measurements
11.4.6 A question of porosities, aspect ratios and sealing
11.4.7 A velocity-depth discussion
11.4.8 Fracture zones
11.5 The East Pacific Rise velocity structures
11.5.1 More porosity and fracture aspect ratio theories
11.5.2 First sub-Pacific ocean core with sonic logs and permeability tests
11.5.3 Attenuation and seismic Q due to fracturing and alteration
11.5.4 Seismic attenuation tomography across the East Pacific Rise
11.5.5 Continuous sub-ocean floor seismic profiles
11.6 Age effects summary for Atlantic Ridge and Pacific Rise
11.6.1 Decline of hydrothermal circulation with age and sediment cover
11.6.2 The analogy of pre-grouting as a form of mineralization

12 Rock stress, pore pressure, borehole stability and sonic logging
12.1 Pore pressure, over-pressure, and minimum stress
12.1.1 Pore pressure and over-pressure and cross-discipline terms
12.1.2 Minimum stress and mud-weight
12.2 Stress anisotropy and its intolerance by weak rock
12.2.1 Reversal of Ko trends nearer the surface
12.3 Relevance to logging of borehole disturbed zone
12.4 Borehole in continuum becomes borehole in local discontinuum
12.5 The EDZ caused by joints, fractures and bedding-planes
12.6 Loss of porosity due to extreme depth
12.7 Dipole shear-wave logging of boreholes
12.7.1 Some further development of logging tools
12.8 Mud filtrate invasion
12.9 Challenges from ultra HPHT

13 Rock physics at laboratory scale
13.1 Compressional velocity and porosity
13.2 Density, Vs and Vp
13.3 Velocity, aspect ratio, pressure, brine and gas
13.4 Velocity, temperature and influence of fluid
13.5 Velocity, clay content and permeability
13.6 Stratigraphy based velocity to permeability estimation
13.6.1 Correlation to field processes
13.7 Velocity with patchy saturation effects in mixed units
13.8 Dynamic Poisson’s ratio, effective stress and pore fluid
13.9 Dynamic moduli for estimating static deformation moduli
13.10 Attenuation due to fluid type, frequency, clay, over-pressure, compliant minerals, dual porosity
13.10.1 Comparison of velocity and attenuation in the presence of gas or brine
13.10.2 Attenuation when dry or gas or brine saturated
13.10.3 Effect of frequency on velocity and attenuation, dry or with brine
13.10.4 Attenuation for distinguishing gas condensate from oil and water
13.10.5 Attenuation in the presence of clay content
13.10.6 Attenuation due to compliant minerals and microcracks
13.10.7 Attenuation with dual porosity samples of limestones
13.10.8 Attenuation in the presence of over-pressure
13.11 Attenuation in the presence of anisotropy
13.11.1 Attenuation for fluid front monitoring
13.12 Anisotropic velocity and attenuation in shales
13.12.1 Attenuation anisotropy expressions e , g and d
13.13 Permeability and velocity anisotropy due to fabric, joints and fractures
13.13.1 Seismic monitoring of fracture development and permeability
13.14 Rock mass quality, attenuation and modulus

14 P-waves for characterising fractured reservoirs
14.1 Some classic relationships between age, depth and velocity
14.2 Anisotropy and heterogeneity caused by inter-bedded strata and jointing
14.2.1 Some basic anisotropy theory
14.3 Shallow cross-well seismic tomography
14.3.1 Shallow cross-well seismic in fractured rock
14.3.2 Cross-well seismic tomography with permeability measurement
14.3.3 Cross-well seismic in deeper reservoir characterization
14.4 Detecting finely inter-layered sequences
14.4.1 Larger scale differentiation of facies
14.5 Detecting anisotropy caused by fractures with multi-azimuth VSP
14.5.1 Fracture azimuth and stress azimuth from P-wave surveys
14.5.2 Sonic log and VSP dispersion effects and erratic seismic Q
14.6 Dispersion as an alternative method of characterization
14.7 AVO and AVOA using P-waves for fracture detection
14.7.1 Model dependence of AVOA fracture orientation
14.7.2 Conjugate joint or fracture sets also cause anisotropy
14.7.3 Vp anisotropy caused by faulting
14.7.4 Poisson’s ratio anisotropy caused by fracturing
14.8 4C four-component acquisition of seismic including C-waves
14.9 4D seismic monitoring of reservoirs
14.9.1 Possible limitations of some rock physics data
14.9.2 Oil saturation mapping with 4D seismic
14.10 4D monitoring of compaction and porosity at Ekofisk
14.10.1 Seismic detection of subsidence in the overburden
14.10.2 The periodically neglected joint behaviour at Ekofisk
14.11 Water flood causes joint opening and potential shearing
14.12 Low frequencies for sub-basalt imaging
14.13 Recent reservoir anisotropy investigations involving P-waves and attenuation

15 Shear wave splitting in fractured reservoirs and resulting from earthquakes
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Shear wave splitting and its many implications
15.2.1 Some sources of shear-wave splitting
15.3 Crack density and EDA
15.3.1 A discussion of ‘criticality’ due to microcracks
15.3.2 Temporal changes in polarization in Cornwall HDR
15.3.3 A critique of Crampin’s microcrack model
15.3.4 90°-flips in polarization
15.4 Theory relating joint compliances with shear wave splitting
15.4.1 An unrealistic rock simulant suggests equality between ZN and ZT
15.4.2 Subsequent inequality of ZN and ZT
15.4.3 Off-vertical fracture dip or incidence angle, and normal compliance
15.4.4 Discussion of scale effects and stiffness
15.5 Dynamic and static stiffness tests on joints by Pyrak-Nolte
15.5.1 Discussion of stiffness data gaps and discipline bridging needs
15.5.2 Fracture stiffness and permeability
15.6 Normal and shear compliance theories for resolving fluid type
15.6.1 In situ compliances in a fault zone inferred from seismic Q
15.7 Shear wave splitting from earthquakes
15.7.1 Shear-wave splitting in the New Madrid seismic zone
15.7.2 Shear-wave splitting at Parkfield seismic monitoring array
15.7.3 Shear-wave splitting recorded at depth in Cajon Pass borehole
15.7.4 Stress-monitoring site (SMS) anomalies from Iceland
15.7.5 SW-Iceland, Station BJA shear wave anomalies
15.7.6 Effects of shearing on stiffness and shear wave amplitude
15.7.7 Shear-wave splitting at a geothermal field
15.7.8 Shear wave splitting during after-shocks of the Chi-Chi earthquake in Taiwan
15.7.9 Shear-wave splitting under the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
15.8 Recent cases of shear wave splitting in petroleum reservoirs
15.8.1 Some examples of S-wave and PS-wave acquisition methods
15.8.2 Classification of fractured reservoirs
15.8.3 Crack density and shearing of conjugate sets at Ekofisk might enhance splitting
15.8.4 Links between shear wave anisotropy and permeability
15.8.5 Polarization-stress alignment from shallow shear-wave splitting
15.8.6 Shear-wave splitting in argillaceous rocks
15.8.7 Time-lapse application of shear-wave splitting over reservoirs
15.8.8 Temporal shear-wave splitting using AE from the Valhall cap-rock
15.8.9 Shear-wave splitting and fluid identification at the Natih field
15.9 Dual-porosity poro-elastic modelling of dispersion and fracture size effects
15.9.1 A brief survey of rock mechanics pseudo-static models of jointed rock
15.9.2 A very brief review of slip-interface, fracture network and poro-elastic crack models
15.9.3 Applications of Chapman model to Bluebell Altamont fractured gas reservoir
15.9.4 The SeisRox model
15.9.5 Numerical modelling of dynamic joint stiffness effects
15.9.6 A ‘sugar cube’ model representation
15.10 A porous and fractured physical model as a numerical model validation

16 Joint stiffness and compliance and the joint shearing mechanism
16.1 Some important non-linear joint and fracture behaviour modes
16.2 Aspects of fluid flow in deforming rock joints
16.2.1 Coupled stress-flow behaviour under normal closure
16.2.2 Coupled stress-flow behaviour under shear deformation
16.3 Some important details concerning rock joint stiffnesses Kn and Ks
16.3.1 Initial normal stiffness measured at low stress
16.3.2 Normal stiffness at elevated normal stress levels
16.4 Ratios of Kn over Ks under static and dynamic conditions
16.4.1 Frequency dependence of fracture normal stiffness
16.4.2 Ratios of static Kn to static Ks for different block sizes
16.4.3 Field measurements of compliance ZN
16.4.4 Investigation of normal and shear compliances on artificial surfaces in limestones
16.4.5 The Worthington-Lubbe-Hudson range of compliances
16.4.6 Pseudo-static stiffness data for clay filled discontinuities and major shear zones
16.4.7 Shear stress application may apparently affect compliance
16.5 Effect of dry or saturated conditions on shear and normal stiffnesses
16.5.1 Joint roughness coefficient (JRC)
16.5.2 Joint wall compression strength (JCS)
16.5.3 Basic friction angle f b and residual friction angle f r
16.5.4 Empirical equations for the shear behaviour of rock joints
16.6 Mechanical over-closure, thermal-closure, and joint stiffness modification
16.6.1 Normal stiffness estimation
16.6.2 Thermal over-closure of joints and some implications
16.6.3 Mechanical over-closure
16.7 Consequences of shear stress on polarization and permeability
16.7.1 Stress distribution caused by shearing joints, and possible consequences for shear wave splitting
16.7.2 The strength-deformation components of jointed rock masses
16.7.3 Permeability linked to joint shearing
16.7.4 Reservoir seismic case records with possible shearing
16.7.5 The apertures expected of highly stressed ‘open’ joints
16.7.6 Modelling apertures with the BB model
16.7.7 Open joints caused by anisotropic stress, low shear strength, dilation
16.8 Non-linear shear strength and the critical shearing crust
16.8.1 Non-linear strength envelopes and scale effects
16.9 Critically stressed open fractures that indicate conductivity
16.9.1 The JRC contribution at different scales and deformations
16.9.2 Does pre-peak or post-peak strength resist the assumed crustal shear stress?
16.10 Rotation of joint attributes and unequal conjugate jointing may explain azimuthal deviation of S-wave polarization
16.11 Classic stress transformation equations ignore the non-coaxiality of stress and displacement
16.12 Estimating shallow crustal permeability from a modified rock quality Q-water
16.12.1 The problem of clay-sealed discontinuities

17 Conclusions

Appendix A ? The Qrock parameter ratings
The six parameters defined
Combination in pairs
Definitions of characterization and classification as used in rock engineering
Notes on Q-method of rock mass classification

Appendix B ? A worked example

References
Index
Colour Plates