Introduction to Biological Physics for the Health and Life Sciences (Paperback, 2)

I Mechanics 1

Chapter 1 Kinematics 3

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Distance and Displacement 3

1.3 Speed and Velocity 3

1.4 Acceleration 4

1.5 Average Velocity or Speed 6

1.6 Change in Displacement Under Constant Acceleration 7

1.7 The Acceleration Due to Gravity 8

1.8 Independence of Motion in Two Dimensions 10

1.9 Summary 13

1.10 Problems 14

Chapter 2 Force and Newton’s Laws of Motion 17

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 The Concept of Force 17

2.3 Kinds of Force 22

2.4 Newtonian Gravity 25

2.5 Fictitious Forces 26

2.6 Summary 27

2.7 Problems 27

Chapter 3 Motion in a Circle 31

3.1 Introduction 31

3.2 Description of Circular Motion 31

3.3 Circular Velocity and Acceleration 32

3.4 Centripetal Force 33

3.5 Sources of Centripetal Force 33

3.6 Summary 34

3.7 Problems 35

Chapter 4 Statics 37

4.1 Introduction 37

4.2 Equilibrium 37

4.3 Torque 38

4.4 The Principle of Moments 38

4.5 Centre of Gravity/Centre of Mass 39

4.6 Stability 43

4.7 Summary 43

4.8 Problems 43

Chapter 5 Energy 47

5.1 Introduction 47

5.2 What is Energy? 47

5.3 Work 47

5.4 Kinetic Energy 49

5.5 Potential Energy 51

5.6 Conservative Forces 52

5.7 Conservation of Total Energy 52

5.8 Power 53

5.9 Summary 58

5.10 Problems 58

Chapter 6 Momentum 61

6.1 Introduction 61

6.2 Linear Momentum 61

6.3 Newton’s Laws and Momentum 61

6.4 Collisions 62

6.5 Elastic Collisions 64

6.6 Summary 66

6.7 Problems 66

Chapter 7 Simple Harmonic Motion 69

7.1 Introduction 69

7.2 Hooke’s Law 69

7.3 Simple Harmonic Motion 70

7.4 The Simple Pendulum 76

7.5 Summary 76

7.6 Problems 77

Chapter 8 Waves 79

8.1 Introduction 79

8.2 SHM and Waves 79

8.3 Frequency, Wavelength, and Speed 80

8.4 The Form of the Wave 81

8.5 Types of Wave 82

8.6 Superposition and Interference 83

8.7 Beats 83

8.8 Reflection 85

8.9 Standing Waves 85

8.10 Waves and Energy 85

8.11 Complex Waveforms 86

8.12 Summary 88

8.13 Problems 88

Chapter 9 Sound and Hearing 91

9.1 Introduction 91

9.2 Sound Waves in Media 91

9.3 Pitch and Loudness 94

9.4 Resonance and Sound Generation 96

9.5 The Ear 100

9.6 The Doppler Effect 102

9.7 Summary 104

9.8 Problems 105

II Solids and Fluids 107

Chapter 10 Elasticity: Stress and Strain 109

10.1 Introduction 109

10.2 Tension and Compression 109

10.3 Shear Stress and Strain 112

10.4 Bulk Stress and Strain 113

10.5 Elasticity 114

10.6 Summary 116

10.7 Problems 116

Chapter 11 Pressure 119

11.1 Introduction 119

11.2 Pressure 119

11.3 Density 120

11.4 Pascal’s Principle 121

11.5 Measurement of Pressure 124

11.6 Pressure and the Human Body 129

11.7 Summary 129

11.8 Problems 130

Chapter 12 Buoyancy 133

12.1 Introduction 133

12.2 The Buoyant Force 133

12.3 Summary 137

12.4 Problems 138

Chapter 13 Surface Tension and Capillarity 141

13.1 Introduction 141

13.2 Surface Tension 141

13.3 Capillarity 144

13.4 Surfactants and the Lung 146

13.5 Summary 147

13.6 Problems 147

Chapter 14 Fluid Dynamics of Non-viscous Fluids 149

14.1 Introduction 149

14.2 Definitions of Some Key Terms 149

14.3 The Equation of Continuity 149

14.4 Bernoulli’s Equation 151

14.5 Summary 155

14.6 Problems 155

Chapter 15 Fluid Dynamics of Viscous Fluids 159

15.1 Introduction 159

15.2 Viscosity 159

15.3 Turbulence 161

15.4 Summary 162

15.5 Problems 162

Chapter 16 Molecular Transport Phenomena 165

16.1 Introduction 165

16.2 Diffusion 165

16.3 Osmosis 166

16.4 Applications to Biological Systems 167

16.5 Summary 168

16.6 Problems 168

III Thermodynamics 171

Chapter 17 Temperature and the Zeroth Law 173

17.1 Introduction 173

17.2 Thermal Equilibrium 173

17.3 Measuring Temperature 175

17.4 Thermal Expansion of Materials 177

17.5 Summary 181

17.6 Problems 182

Chapter 18 Ideal Gases 185

18.1 Introduction 185

18.2 The Gas Laws 185

18.3 Biological Applications 190

18.4 Kinetic Theory of Gases 191

18.5 Summary 195

18.6 Problems 195

Chapter 19 Phase and Temperature Change 199

19.1 Introduction 199

19.2 Phase Changes 199

19.3 Temperature Changes 204

19.4 Energy Conservation 204

19.5 L and c Values for Water 207

19.6 Summary 208

19.7 Problems 209

Chapter 20 Water Vapour and the Atmosphere 213

20.1 Introduction 213

20.2 Mixtures of Water Vapour and Air 213

20.3 Partial Pressure and Moisture Content 214

20.4 Atmospheric Properties 215

20.5 Psychrometry 216

20.6 Applications 222

20.7 Summary 222

20.8 Problems 223

Chapter 21 Heat Transfer 227

21.1 Introduction 227

21.2 Conduction 227

21.3 Convection 229

21.4 Radiation 230

21.5 Combined Transfer Processes 232

21.6 Summary 234

21.7 Problems 235

Chapter 22 Thermodynamics and the Body 239

22.1 Introduction 239

22.2 The First Law 239

22.3 Energy and the Body 239

22.4 Thermoregulation 242

22.5 Temperature and Health 244

22.6 Summary 245

22.7 Problems 245

Chapter 23 Thermodynamic Processes in Ideal Gases 249

23.1 Introduction 249

23.2 States, Processes, and Equilibrium 249

23.3 Reversibility 251

23.4 Work and P–V Diagrams 252

23.5 Isobaric, Isochoric, Isothermal, & Adiabatic Processes 254

23.6 Summary 258

23.7 Problems 259

Chapter 24 Heat Engines And Entropy 263

24.1 Introduction 263

24.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 263

24.3 Entropy 264

24.4 Cyclic Processes and Heat Engines 266

24.5 The First Law for Reversible Processes 270

24.6 T–S Diagrams for Heat Engines 270

24.7 Entropy and Irreversible Processes 273

24.8 Absolute Entropy And The Third Law of Thermodynamics 274

24.9 Summary 275

24.10 Problems 276

Chapter 25 Energy Availability and Thermodynamic Potentials 279

25.1 Introduction 279

25.2 Enthalpy 279

25.3 Helmholtz Energy 282

25.4 Gibbs Energy 283

25.5 Chemical Work and the Chemical Potential 284

25.6 Thermodynamic Potentials and Equilibrium 285

25.7 Heat Engines and the Efficiency of Metabolism 287

25.8 Summary 290

25.9 Problems 291

IV Electricity and DC Circuits 293

Chapter 26 Static Electricity 295

26.1 Introduction 295

26.2 Charge 295

26.3 Conductors and Insulators 297

26.4 Charging of Objects 297

26.5 Polarisation 298

26.6 Summary 299

26.7 Problems 300

Chapter 27 Electric Force and Electric Field 301

27.1 Introduction 301

27.2 Coulomb’s Law 301

27.3 Superposition of Electric Forces 302

27.4 Inverse Square Laws 304

27.5 The Electric Field 305

27.6 Electric Field Diagrams 305

27.7 Superposition of Electric Fields 307

27.8 Summary 307

27.9 Problems 308

Chapter 28 Electrical Potential and Energy 311

28.1 Introduction 311

28.2 Electrical Potential Energy 311

28.3 Electrical Potential 312

28.4 Electrical Potential and Work 313

28.5 Equipotential and Field Lines 315

28.6 Electrical and External Forces 316

28.7 The Heart and ECG 318

28.8 Summary 320

28.9 Problems 320

Chapter 29 Capacitance 323

29.1 Introduction 323

29.2 The Capacitor 323

29.3 Energy Stored in a Capacitor 325

29.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel 326

29.5 The Dielectric in a Capacitor 328

29.6 Summary 330

29.7 Problems 330

Chapter 30 Direct Currents and DC Circuits 333

30.1 Introduction 333

30.2 Electric Current 333

30.3 Current and Drift Velocity 334

30.4 Direct Versus Alternating Current 335

30.5 Circuits and Circuit Diagrams 336

30.6 Power Sources 336

30.7 Resistance and Ohm’s Law 336

30.8 Resistors and Resistivity 337

30.9 Wires 338

30.10 Kirchhoff’s Laws 339

30.11 Resistors in Series and Parallel 341

30.12 Power Dissipation 342

30.13 Alternate Energy Units 343

30.14 Electric Shock Hazards 343

30.15 Electricity in Cells 344

30.16 Summary 346

30.17 Problems 347

Chapter 31 Time Behaviour of RC Circuits 351

31.1 Introduction 351

31.2 The RC Circuit 351

31.3 Discharging RC Circuit 352

31.4 Charging RC Circuit 353

31.5 Summary 356

31.6 Problems 356

V Optics 359

Chapter 32 The Nature of Light 361

32.1 Introduction 361

32.2 Electromagnetic Waves 361

32.3 Reflection 363

32.4 Refraction 364

32.5 Dispersion 368

32.6 Summary 370

32.7 Problems 371

Chapter 33 Geometric Optics 375

33.1 Introduction 375

33.2 Ray Diagrams 375

33.3 Plane Mirrors 377

33.4 Spherical Mirrors 377

33.5 Magnification 380

33.6 Lenses 382

33.7 Summary 388

33.8 Problems 389

Chapter 34 The Eye and Vision 393

34.1 Introduction 393

34.2 The Parts of the Eye 393

34.3 Emmetropia (Normal Vision) 396

34.4 Presbyopia 397

34.5 Myopia 399

34.6 Hypermetropia (or Hyperopia) 402

34.7 Astigmatism 403

34.8 Alternative Structure & Placement 403

34.9 Colour Vision 404

34.10 Summary 407

34.11 Problems 407

Chapter 35 Wave Optics 411

35.1 Introduction 411

35.2 Superposition and Interference 411

35.3 Huygens’ Principle 412

35.4 Diffraction 414

35.5 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment 414

35.6 Single-Slit Diffraction 416

35.7 Diffraction Gratings 419

35.8 Circular Apertures and Diffraction 420

35.9 Visual Acuity 420

35.10 Thin-Film Interference 422

35.11 Polarisation 422

35.12 Summary 425

35.13 Problems 425

Chapter 36 Advanced Geometric Optics 429

36.1 Introduction 429

36.2 Image Formation by Reflection at a Spherical Surface 429

36.3 Image Formation by a Refraction at a Single Spherical Surface 432

36.4 Image Formation by a Thin Lens 437

36.5 Vergences 440

36.6 Multiple Lenses and Thick Lenses 446

36.7 Summary 447

36.8 Problems 447

Chapter 37 Optical Instruments 449

37.1 Introduction 449

37.2 Single Converging Lens: The Magnifying Glass 449

37.3 Microscopes 452

37.4 Telescopes 455

37.5 Summary 457

37.6 Problems 457

VI Radiation and Health 461

Chapter 38 Atoms and Atomic Physics 463

38.1 Introduction 463

38.2 Parts of the Atom 463

38.3 Electron Orbitals 464

38.4 The Böhr Model of the Atom 465

38.5 Multielectron Atoms 469

38.6 Quantum Mechanics 470

38.7 Summary 471

38.8 Problems 472

Chapter 39 The Nucleus and Nuclear Physics 475

39.1 Introduction 475

39.2 Nuclei and Isotopes 475

39.3 Energy and Mass Units 476

39.4 Nuclear Forces 478

39.5 Nuclear Decay and Stability 479

39.6 Summary 483

39.7 Problems 483

Chapter 40 Production of Ionising Radiation 485

40.1 Introduction 485

40.2 Nuclear Decay Processes 485

40.3 Activity and Half-Life 488

40.4 X-ray Production 491

40.5 Other Sources of Radiation 494

40.6 Summary 495

40.7 Problems 496

Chapter 41 Interactions of Ionising Radiation 499

41.1 Introduction 499

41.2 Attenuation and Cross Section 499

41.3 X-rays and Gamma Radiation 501

41.4 Particles 505

41.5 Detection of Ionising Radiation 506

41.6 Summary 507

41.7 Problems 508

Chapter 42 Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation 509

42.1 Introduction 509

42.2 Mechanisms of Cell Damage 509

42.3 Dose and Dose Equivalent 510

42.4 Types of Effect 513

42.5 Medical Effects and Risk 514

42.6 Ultraviolet Radiation 514

42.7 Summary 515

42.8 Problems 515

Chapter 43 Medical Imaging 519

43.1 Introduction 519

43.2 X-ray Imaging 519

43.3 CT Scan 521

43.4 PET scan 521

43.5 Gamma Camera and SPECT 522

43.6 Diagnostic Procedures: Dose 522

43.7 Ultrasound Sonography 522

43.8 Summary 524

Chapter 44 Magnetism and MRI 525

44.1 Introduction 525

44.2 Magnetism 526

44.3 A Brief Outline of MRI 530

44.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 531

44.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 537

44.6 Summary 545

44.7 Problems 546

Appendices 550

Appendix A Physical Constants 551

A.1 High Precision Mass Values 551

A.2 Useful Constants 551

Appendix B Basic Maths and Science Skills 553

B.1 Measurement and Units 553

B.2 Basic Algebra 557

B.3 Exponentials and Logarithms 559

B.4 Geometry 561

B.5 Trigonometric Functions 561

B.6 Vectors 562

Appendix C Answers To Odd Numbered Problems 565