Static Electricity: Understanding, Controlling, Applying (Hardcover)

About the Authors xiii

Opening Remark xv

Preliminary Remark xvii

Preface xix

1 Basics of Fire and Explosion: Risk Assessment 1

1.1 Basic Considerations on Fire and Explosion (T1) 1

1.2 Explosive Atmosphere 3

1.3 Hybrid Mixtures ( P7) 6

1.4 Allocation of Explosion-Endangered Areas and Permissible Equipment ( P6) 7

1.5 Permissible Equipment (Equipment Protection Level) 7

1.6 Ignition Sources 9

1.7 Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) 11

1.8 Imaginary Experiment to Assess the Hazardous Potential of Flammable Liquids 15

PowerPoint Presentations 18

References 18

2 Principles of Static Electricity 19

2.1 Basics 19

2.2 Electrostatic Charging of Solids ( T2) 21

2.3 Triboelectric Series 24

2.4 Surface Resistivity 24

2.5 Electrostatic Charging of Liquids ( T2, T8) 28

2.6 Charging by Gases 31

2.7 Electric Field 33

2.8 Electric Induction ( T3) 36

2.9 Capacitance and Capacitor 38

PowerPoint Presentations 38

References 39

3 Metrology 41

3.1 Basics ( T7) 41

3.2 Appropriate Metrology for Electrostatic Safety Measures 44

3.3 Comparison: Electrostatics/Electrical Engineering 44

3.4 Selecting the Suitable Measurement Methods 45

3.5 Assignment and Summary 49

3.6 Conductivity of Liquids 51

3.7 Bulk Materials 52

3.8 Concerning the Use of Insulating Material in Endangered Areas 52

3.9 Measurement of Electrostatic Charges 52

3.10 Other Measurement Applications 68

3.11 Capacitance 77

3.12 Themes around Air Humidity 81

PowerPoint Presentations 87

Picture Credits 87

References 88

4 Gas Discharges 89

4.1 Mechanisms of Gas Discharges ( T5) 89

4.2 Electrostatic Gas Discharges 90

4.3 Types of Gas Discharges 94

4.4 Consequences of Gas Discharges 102

4.5 Listing of Traces Caused by Gas Discharges (  P11; T8) 102

4.6 How Can Dangerous Gas Discharges Be Avoided? 103

PowerPoint Presentations 111

Picture Credits 111

Video Credits 111

References 111

5 Preventing Electrostatic Disturbances 113

5.1 Electrostatics:When Sparks Fly 113

5.2 Dielectric Strength 117

5.3 Discharging Charged Surfaces 118

5.4 Potential Hazards Posed by Discharge Electrodes 134

Picture Credits 136

Video Credits 137

References 137

Further Reading 137

6 Description of Demonstration Experiments 139

6.1 Preliminary Remarks 140

6.2 Static Voltmeter 141

6.3 Field Meter 142

6.4 Van de Graaff Generator 142

6.5 Explosion Tube 142

6.6 Electrostatic Force Effects 144

6.7 Charges Caused by Separating Process 149

6.8 Charging of Particles 150

6.9 Electric Induction 153

6.10 Dissipating Properties 157

6.11 Experiments with the Explosion Tube 158

6.12 Gas Discharges 160

6.13 Fire and Explosion Dangers 168

Reference 175

7 Case Studies 177

7.1 Strategy of Investigation 177

7.2 Ignitions Due to Brush Discharges 180

7.3 Case Studies Related to Propagating Brush Discharges 192

7.4 Case Histories Related to Spark Discharges 204

7.5 Ignition Caused by Cone Discharges 212

7.6 Doubts with Electrostatic Ignitions 213

7.7 Act with Relevant Experience 219

PowerPoint Presentations 220

Video 221

References 221

8 Targeted Use of Charges 223

8.1 Applications 223

8.2 Examples of the Creative Implementation of Applications 226

8.3 Summary 251

Picture Credits 251

Video Credits 252

References 252

M Mathematics Toolbox 253

M1 Energy W of a Capacitance 255

M1.1 Minimum Ignition Energy WMIE 255

M1.2 Power P 255

M1.3 Electrical Efficiency η 256

M2 Field E; Field Strength E⃗ 256

M2.1 Homogeneous Field between Plane Plates 256

M2.2 Field of Point Charge 256

M2.3 Permittivity ε 257

M2.4 Field of Rod (Wire) Charge 257

M3 Flux Density D (Earlier: Dielectric Displacement) ⃗ 257

M4 Frequency f 258

M4.1 Wavelength λ 258

M4.2 Circular Frequency ω 258

M5 Inductance L 258

M5.1 Inductance Ls of an Air Coil 259

M6 Capacitance C 259

M6.1 Rod (Wire) across a Conductive Area 259

M6.2 Coaxial Cable/Cylinder Capacitance 260

M6.3 Conductive Sphere in Space 260

M6.4 Sphere Across a Conductive Area 260

M6.5 Shunt of Single Capacitors 261

M6.6 Plate Capacitor 261

M6.7 Series of Single Capacitors 261

M7 Force F, F⃗ 262

M7.1 Force between 2 Point Charges (Coulomb’s law) 262

M8 Charge Q 263

M8.1 Moved Charge Qm 263

M8.2 Charge of Electron Beam Qe 263

M8.3 Surface Charge Density σ 263

M8.4 Mass Charge Density Q 264

M8.5 Volume Charge Density ρ 264

M9 Potential φ 264

M10 Voltage U 265

M11 Resistance R (Universal) 267

Annex 275

1 Videos for download from www.wiley-vch.de 275

2 PowerPoint Presentations 275

2.1 Theory of Electrostatics (Visualized by Experiments) 275

2.2 Practical Examples with “Freddy” (Electrostatic Hazards in Plant areas) 276

Index 277