Metal Impurities in Silicon-Device Fabrication (Hardcover, REV)

1. Introduction.- 2. Common Properties of Transition Metals.- 2.1 General Behavior.- 2.2 Contamination of Silicon Wafers.- 2.2.1 Solid Phase.- 2.2.2 Liquid Phase.- 2.2.3 Vapor Phase.- 2.3 Impact on Device Performance.- 2.3.1 Dissolved Transition Metals.- 2.3.2 Precipitated Transition Metals.- 3. Properties of Transition Metals in Silicon.- 3.1 Solubilities.- 3.2 Diffusivities.- 3.3 Dissolved Impurities.- 3.3.1 Point Defects.- 3.3.2 Complexes.- 3.4 Precipitated Metals.- 3.4.1 Volume Precipitates.- 3.4.2 Surface Precipitates - Haze.- 3.4.3 Haze Phenomena.- 4. Properties of the Main Impurities.- 4.1 Iron.- 4.1.1 Solubility.- 4.1.2 Diffusivity.- 4.1.3 Behavior During Heat Treatment.- 4.1.4 Electrical Activity.- 4.1.5 Properties of the Precipitates.- 4.1.6 Known Impurity Sources, and Common Concentrations.- 4.1.7 Avoidance of Contamination.- 4.2 Nickel.- 4.2.1 Solubility.- 4.2.2 Diffusivity.- 4.2.3 Behavior During Heat Treatment.- 4.2.4 Electrical Activity.- 4.2.5 Properties of the Precipitate.- 4.2.6 Known Impurity Sources, and Common Concentrations.- 4.2.7 Avoidance of Contamination.- 4.3 Copper.- 4.3.1 Solubility.- 4.3.2 Diffusivity.- 4.3.3 Behavior During Heat Treatment.- 4.3.4 Electrical Activity.- 4.3.5 Properties of the Precipitate.- 4.3.6 Known Impurity Sources and Common Concentration.- 4.3.7 Avoidance of Contamination.- 4.4 Molybdenum.- 4.4.1 Solubility.- 4.4.2 Diffusivity.- 4.4.3 Behavior During Heat Treatment.- 4.4.4 Electrical Activity.- 4.4.5 Properties of the Precipitate.- 4.4.6 Known Impurity Sources and Common Concentrations.- 4.4.7 Avoidance of Contamination.- 4.5 Palladium.- 4.5.1 Solubility.- 4.5.2 Diffusivity.- 4.5.3 Behavior During Heat Treatment.- 4.5.4 Electrical Activity.- 4.5.5 Properties of the Precipitate.- 4.5.6 Known Impurity Sources and Common Concentrations.- 4.6 Platinum.- 4.6.1 Solubility.- 4.6.2 Diffusivity.- 4.6.3 Behavior During Heat Treatment.- 4.6.4 Electrical Activity.- 4.6.5 Properties of the Precipitate.- 4.6.6 Known Impurity Sources and Common Concentrations.- 4.6.7 Avoidance of Contamination.- 4.7 Gold.- 4.7.1 Solubility.- 4.7.2 Diffusivity.- 4.7.3 Behavior During Heat Treatment.- 4.7.4 Electrical Activity.- 4.7.5 Properties of the Precipitates.- 4.7.6 Known Impurity Sources and Common Concentrations.- 4.7.7 Avoidance of Contamination.- 5. Properties of Rare Impurities.- 5.1 Scandium.- 5.2 Titanium.- 5.3 Vanadium.- 5.4 Chromium.- 5.5 Manganese.- 5.6 Cobalt.- 5.7 Zinc.- 5.8 Zircon.- 5.9 Niobium.- 5.10 Ruthenium.- 5.11 Rhodium.- 5.12 Silver.- 5.13 Cadmium.- 5.14 Hafnium.- 5.15 Tantalum.- 5.16 Tungsten.- 5.17 Rhenium.- 5.18 Osmium.- 5.19 Iridium.- 5.20 Mercury.- 6. Detection Methods.- 6.1 Detection of Total Impurity Content.- 6.1.1 Neutron Activation Analysis.- 6.1.2 Mass Spectrometers, Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometers.- 6.1.3 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy.- 6.1.4 Vapor-Phase Decomposition.- 6.1.5 Inductively-Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy.- 6.1.6 Total-Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis.- 6.2 Detection of Dissolved Impurities.- 6.2.1 Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy.- 6.2.2 Carrier Lifetime.- 6.2.3 Diffusion Length.- 6.3 Detection of Precipitates.- 6.3.1 Haze Test.- 7. Requirements of Modern Technology.- 7.1 Reduction of Contamination.- 7.1.1 Control of Ingots.- 7.1.2 Process Control.- 8. Gettering of Impurities.- 8.1 Gettering Mechanisms.- 8.2 Control of Gettering Efficiency.- 8.2.1 Conventional Methods.- 8.2.2 Palladium Test.- 8.2.3 Iron Test.- 9. Conclusion and Future Trends.- References.