Introduction to Sustainable Energy Transformation (Hardcover, 1)

SECTION I Energy Forms and Resources Fundamental Concepts1.1 Units and Notation1.1.1 Units1.1.2 Notation1.1.3 Atomic and nuclear nomenclature1.2 Structure of Matter1.2.1 Matter1.2.2 The Atom1.2.3 Sources of Nuclear and Atomic Information1.3 Energy in Matter1.3.1 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy1.3.2 Internal Energy1.3.3 Energy in Chemical Reactions1.3.4 Energy in Nuclear Reactions Problems Energy Forms, Reserves, Supply, and Consumption2.1 Energy Forms2.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy2.1.2 Energy Carrier2.1.3 Final Energy2.1.4 Useful Energy2.1.5 Electricity2.1.6 Heat2.2 Reserves of Energy-Containing Minerals2.2.1 Fossil Fuels2.2.2 Uranium2.2.3 Other Minerals2.3 Energy Supply2.3.1 Crude Oil2.3.2 Coal2.3.3 Natural Gas2.3.4 Biofuels and Waste2.3.5 Nuclear2.3.6 Hydro2.3.7 Wind2.3.8 Solar2.4 Power Sector2.5 Energy Consumption2.5.1 Aluminium Production2.5.2 Cement Production2.5.3 Iron and Steel2.5.4 Pulp and Paper2.5.5 Chemicals2.5.6 Energy Services2.5.7 Energy Efficiency and Environment Protection Elements of Sustainability3.1 Sustainability Goals3.2 Environment3.2.1 Atmosphere3.2.2 Biosphere3.2.3 Hydrosphere3.3.1 Role of Economy in Sustainability3.3.2 Ways to Promote Environmental Protection3.3.3 Climate Change Mechanical and Electromagnetic Energy4.1 Forces and Fields4.1.1 A Force4.1.2 A Field4.2 Mechanical Energy4.2.1 Kinetic Energy4.2.2 Potential Energy4.2.3 Work and Power4.2.4 Linear and Angular Momentum4.2.5 Mechanical Energy Losses4.2.6 Mechanical Energy Storage4.3 Electromagnetic Energy4.3.1 Electrostatics4.3.2 Electric Current4.3.3 Magnetism4.3.4 Induction4.3.5 Electrical Devices4.3.6 Electromagnetic Energy Losses4.3.7 Electromagnetic Energy StorageBiological and Chemical Energy5.1 Photosynthesis5.1.1 Mechanisms of Photosynthesis5.1.2 Photosynthesis Efficiency5.2 Food Energy5.2.1 Food Production5.2.2 Fertilizers5.3 Bioenergy5.3.1 Biomass5.3.2 Biogas5.3.3 Ethanol5.3.4 Biodiesel5.4 Fossil Fuels5.4.1 Coal5.4.2 Petroleum5.4.3 Natural Gas5.5 Combustion5.5.1 Combustion of Gasoline5.5.2 Combustion of Ethanol5.5.3 Combustion of Coal5.5.4 Combustion of Hydrogen Nuclear Energy6.1 Binding Energy of a Nucleus6.2 Energy Transformation in Stars6.3 Characteristics of the Nuclear Fission6.3.1 Fission Products6.3.2 Neutron Emission6.3.3 Energy Released in Fission Reactions6.4 Nuclear Fusion6.5 Radioactive Decay Thermal Energy7.1 Introductory Definitions7.1.1 Thermodynamic Control Systems7.1.2 State Parameters7.1.3 Thermodynamic Equilibrium7.1.4 Thermodynamic Diagrams7.1.5 Thermodynamic Processes7.1.6 Thermodynamic Cycles7.2 The Laws of Thermodynamics7.2.1 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics7.2.2 First Law of Thermodynamics7.2.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics7.3 Equation of State7.3.1 The Ideal Gas Law7.3.2 Ideal Gas Mixtures7.3.3 Van der Waals Equation of State7.3.4 Principle of Corresponding States7.3.5 Phase Change7.4 Thermodynamic Processes in Heat Engines7.4.1 Isothermal Process7.4.2 Isochoric Process7.4.3 Isobaric Process7.4.4 Adiabatic Process7.4.5 Polytropic Process7.5 Thermodynamic Cycles7.5.1 Carnot Cycle7.5.2 Rankine Cycle7.5.3 Brayton Cycle7.5.4 Stirling Cycle7.5.5 Kalina Cycle7.5.6 Combined Cycle7.6 Entropy Balance7.7 Principle of Maximum Work7.8 Exergy Balance7.8.1 Mechanical and Electrical Exergy7.8.2 Thermal Exergy7.8.3 Chemical Exergy7.8.4 Total Exergy of Substance7.8.5 Exergy of Heat Reservoirs7.8.6 Exergy LossesFluid Flow in Energy Systems8.1 Generalized Conservation Law8.1.1 General Integral Conservation Equation8.1.2 Stationary Control Volume8.1.3 Moving Control Volume8.1.4 Material Volume8.1.5 Local Differential Formulation8.2 Closure Relationships8.2.1 Total Stress Tensor8.2.2 Heat Flux8.2.3 Entropy Generation8.3 Space-Averaged Flow in a Tube8.3.1 Averaged Mass Conservation Equation8.3.2 Averaged Momentum Conservation Equation8.4 Internal Flows8.4.1 Average Flow Parameters8.4.2 Wall Shear Stress and Friction Pressure Loss8.4.3 Macroscopic Energy Balance for Adiabatic Channel8.4.4 Local Pressure Losses8.5 External Flows8.6 Multiphase Flows8.6.1 Notation and Nomenclature8.6.2 Flow Patterns8.6.3 Homogeneous Equilibrium Model8.6.4 Homogeneous Relaxation Model8.6.5 Separated Flow Model8.6.6 Drift Flux Model8.6.7 Two-Fluid Model Heat Transfer in Energy Systems9.1 Governing Equations9.2 Conduction9.2.1 Steady-State Heat Conduction9.2.2 Transient Heat Conduction9.3 Convection9.3.1 Forced Convection9.3.2 Natural Convection9.4 Boiling9.4.1 Nucleation and Ebullition Cycle9.4.2 Pool Boiling9.4.4 Onset of Nucleate Boiling9.4.5 Subcooled Boiling9.4.6 Saturated Boiling9.5 Boiling Crisis9.5.1 Pool Boiling Crisis9.5.2 Flow Boiling Crisis9.6 Post-Boiling-Crisis Heat Transfer9.7 Radiation SECTION II Energy Transformation Systems Efficiency of Energy Transformation10.1 Power Generation Technologies10.2 Energy Efficiency10.2.1 First-Law Efficiency10.2.2 Second-Law Efficiency10.3 Energy Conservation and Storage Thermal Power11.1 Introduction11.2 Condensing Power11.2.1 Schematic of a Basic System11.2.2 Basic System Efficiency11.2.3 Efficiency Improvements11.2.4 System Modelling11.3 Stationary Gas Turbines11.4 Combined Cycle Power11.5 Cogeneration and TrigenerationMoving Water Energy12.1 Hydropower ................................................................................................20912.1.1 Hydropower Potential ....................................................................21012.1.2 Types of Water Turbines ................................................................21012.1.3 Types of Hydropower Plants..........................................................21112.1.4 Analysis of Water Turbine Efficiency............................................21412.2 Marine Current Power ................................................................................21612.3 Wave Power ................................................................................................21612.4 Tidal Power.................................................................................................217Wind Energy13.1 Energy of Moving Air13.2 Wind Power Machines.13.2.1 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines13.2.2 Darrieus turbines13.2.3 Savonius Turbines13.3 Wind Energy Resources13.4 Wind Characteristics13.4.1 Temporal Variability of Wind13.4.2 Global Circulation in Atmosphere13.4.3 Synoptic Scale Winds13.4.4 Diurnal Wind Changes13.4.5 Modelling Wind Speed Variation13.4.6 Wind Rose - Wind Direction and Intensity13.5 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics13.5.1 Maximum Power of a Wind Turbine13.5.2 Wind Turbine Efficiency13.6 Environmental Effects of Wind Power13.6.1 Noise13.6.2 Shadow Flicker13.6.3 Visual Impact13.6.4 Bird Collisions13.6.5 Site PlanningSolar Energy14.1 Solar Radiation on Earth14.1.1 Energy of the Sunlight14.1.2 Sun Position14.1.3 Components of Solar Radiation14.1.4 Solar Radiation on Inclined Surfaces14.2 Solar Thermal Energy14.2.1 Absorption of Radiation14.2.2 Collectors14.2.3 Concentrators14.3 Photovoltaic Solar Cells14.3.1 Theory14.3.2 Silicon Solar Cells14.3.3 Advanced Solar Cells14.3.4 Photovoltaic ModulesNuclear Energy15.1 Introduction15.1.1 Neutron Reactions15.1.2 Neutron Flux15.1.3 The Neutron Cycle in Thermal Reactor15.2 Reactor Analysis and Design15.2.1 Steady-State Reactor Physics15.2.2 Thermal-Hydraulic Design15.3 Reactor Kinetics and Dynamics15.4 Fuel Composition Changes15.4.1 Fuel Conversion and Breeding15.4.2 Fission Product Poisoning15.5 Reactor Types15.5.1 Currently Operable Reactors15.5.2 Advanced Reactors15.6 Nuclear Fuel Cycle15.7 Nuclear Power Safety15.8 Fusion Reactors and Other Technologies15.8.1 Potential Fusion Reactions15.8.2 Fusion Power Density15.8.3 Plasma Confinement Methods15.8.4 Fusion Performance Criteria15.8.5 ITER15.8.6 Other TechnologiesSECTION III External Effects Energy and Environment16.1 Climate16.2 Greenhouse effect16.3 Earth energy imbalance16.4 CO2 Concentration16.5 Greenhouse Gas Emissions16.6 Air Pollution16.7 Water Use and Contamination16.8 Land Use16.9 Mineral Use Risks, Safety, and Cost Analysis17.1 Risk Analysis17.1.1 Risk of Energy Systems17.1.2 Probabilistic Risk Assessment17.2 Hazards in Energy Systems17.2.1 Solar Power17.2.2 Wind Power17.2.3 Hydropower17.2.4 Combustion-based Thermal Power17.2.5 Geothermal Power17.2.6 Nuclear Power17.3 Cost Analysis17.3.1 Calculation Methods17.3.2 Levelized Cost of EnergyAppendix A NotationAppendix B ConstantsAppendix C DataAppendix D Mathematical ToolsAppendix E UnitsReferencesIndex